Understanding Cardiac Development Through the Perspective of Gene Regulation and Gene Manipulation

References

• Bower C, Ramsay J M. Congenital heart disease: A 10 year cohort. J Paediatr Child Health 1994; 30: 414–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy D L, McIntyre L, Human D G, et al. Trends in the prevalence of congenital heart disease: Comprehensive observations over a 24-year period in a defined region of Canada. Can J Cardiol 1994; 10: 821–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillum R F. Epidemiology of congenital heart disease in the United States. Am Heart J 1994; 127: 919–27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidd S A, Lancaster P A, McCredie R M. The incidence of congenital heart defects in the first year of life. J Paediatr Child Health 1993; 29: 344–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fyler D, Buckley L, Hellenbrand W. Report of the New England Regional Infant Cardiac Program. Pediatrics 1980; 65(suppl)375–461
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stainier D Y, Fishman M C. Patterning the zebrafish heart tube: Acquisition of anteroposterior polarity. Dev Biol 1992; 153: 91–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stainier D Y, Lee R K, Fishman M C. Cardiovascular development in the zebrafish. I. Myocardial fate map and heart tube formation. Development 1993; 119: 31–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee R K, Stainier D Y, Weinstein B M, Fishman M C. Cardiovascular development in the zebrafish. II. Endocardial progenitors are sequestered within the heart field. Development 1994; 120: 3361–6
   Google Scholar
• De Robertis E, Morita E, Cho K. Gradient fields and homeobox genes. Development 1991; 112: 669–78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mavilio F. Regulation of vertebrate homeobox-containing genes by morphogens. Eur J Biochem 1993; 212: 273–88
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McGinnis W, Krumlauf R. Homeobox genes and axial patterning. Cell 1992; 68: 283–302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGinnis W, Kuziora M. The molecular architects of body design. Sci Am 1994; 270(2)58–66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kern M, Argao E, Potter S. Homeobox genes and heart development Trends Cardiovasc. Med 1995; 5: 47–54
   Google Scholar
• Patel C, Gorski D, LePage D, Lincecum J, Walsh K. Molecular cloning of a homeobox transcription factor from adult aortic smooth muscle. J Biol Chem 1992; 267: 26085–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rijli F, Mark M, Lakkaraju S, Dierich A, Dolle P, Chambon P. A homeotic transformation is generated in the rostral region of the head by disruption of Hoxa-2, which acts as a selector gene. Cell 1993; 75: 1333–49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaunt S. Mouse homeobox gene transcripts occupy different but overlapping domains in embryonic germ layers and organs: A comparison of Hox-3.1, Hox-1.5. Development 1988; 103: 135–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chisaka O, Capecchi M. Regionally restricted developmental defects resulting from targeted disruption of the mouse homeobox gene Hox-1.5. Nature 1991; 350: 473–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stadler H, Solursh M. Characterization of the homeobox-containing gene GH6 identifies novel regions of homeobox gene expression in the developing chick embryo. Dev Biol 1994; 161: 251–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan-Thomas P, Thompson R, Robert B, Yacoub M, Barton P. Expression of homeobox genes Msx-1 (Hox-7), Msx-2 (Hox-8) during cardiac development in the chick. Dev Dyn 1993; 197: 203–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monaghan A, Davidson D, Sime C, et al. The Msh-like homeobox genes define domains in the developing vertebrate eye. Development 1991; 112: 1053–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jabs E, Muller U, Li X, et al. A mutation in the homeodomain of the human MSX2 gene in a family affected with autosomal dominant craniosynostosis. Cell 1993; 75: 443–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satokata I, Maas R. Msx1 deficient mice exhibit cleft palate and abnormalities of craniofacial and tooth development. Nat Genet 1994; 6: 348–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodmer R. The gene tinman is required for specification of the heart and visceral muscles in Drosophila. Development 1993; 118: 719–29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lints T, Parsons L, Hartley L, Lyons I, Harvey R. Nkx-2.5: A novel marine homeobox gene expressed in early heart progenitor cells and their myogenic descendants. Development 1993; 119: 419–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Komuro I, Izumo S. Csx: A murine homeobox-containing gene specifically expressed in the developing heart. Proc Nail Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 8145–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai Z, Rushton E, Bate M, Rubin G. Loss of function of the Drosophila zhf-1 gene results in abnormal development of mesodermally derived tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 4122–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai Z, Fortini M, Rubin G. The embryonic expression patterns of zhf-1, zhf-2, two Drosophilagenes encoding novel zinc-finger homeodomain proteins. Mech Dev 1991; 34: 123–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins A S, Mercer J A, Jenkins N A, Copeland N G. Patterns of Evi-1 expression in embryonic and adult tissues suggest that Evi-1 plays an important regulatory role in mouse development. Development 1991; 111: 479–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heikinheimo M, Scanderett J, Wilson D. Localization of transcription factor GATA-4 to regions of the mouse embryo involved in cardiac development. Dev Biol 1994; 164: 361–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley D, Blumberg H, Zon L, Evans T. GATA-4 is a novel transcription factor expressed in the endocardium of the developing heart. Development 1993; 118: 817–27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arceci R, King A, Simon M, Orkin S, Wilson D. Mouse GATA-4: A retinoic acid-inducible GATA-binding transcription factor expressed in endodermal derivatives and heart. Mol Cell Biol 1993; 13: 2235–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hon J, McGralh P, Hale P. Electrophoretic analysis of multiple forms of rat cardiac myosin: Effects of hypophysectomy and thyroxine replacement. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1978; 10: 1053–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton P J, Buckingham M E. The myosin alkali light chain proteins and their genes. Biochem J 1985; 231: 249–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton P, Robert B, Cohen A, et al. Structure and sequence of the myosin alkali light chain gene expressed in adult cardiac atria and fetal striated muscle. J Biol Chem 1988; 263: 12669–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurabayashi M, Tsuchimochi H, Komuro I, Takaku F, Yazaki Y. Molecular cloning and characterization of human cardiac alpha- and beta-form myosin heavy chain complementary DNA clones. Regulation of expression during development and pressure overload in human atrium. J Clin Invest 1988; 82: 524–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liew C C, Jandreski M A. Construction and characterization of the alpha form of a cardiac myosin heavy chain cDNA clone and its developmental expression in the Syrian hamster. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 3175–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lompre A M, Nadal-Ginard B, Mahdavi V. Expression of the cardiac ventricular alpha- and beta-myosin heavy chain genes is developmentally and hormonally regulated. J Biol Chem 1984; 259: 6437–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulick J, Kropp K, Robbins J. The structure of two fast-white myosin heavy chain promoters. A comparative study. J Biol Chem 1985; 260: 14513–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chizzonite R A, Everett A W, Clark W A, Jakovcic S, Rabinowitz M, Zak R. Isolation and characterization of two molecular variants of myosin heavy chain from rabbit ventricle. Change in their con tent during normal growth and after treatment with thyroid hormone. J Biol Chem 1982; 257: 2056–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons G, Schiaffino S, Sassoon D, Barton P, Buckingham M. Developmental regulation of myosin gene expression in mouse cardiac muscle. J Cell Biol 1990; 111: 2427–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummins P. Transitions in human atrial and ventricular myosin light-chain isoenzymes in response to cardiac-pressure-overload-induced hypertrophy. Biochem J 1982; 205: 195–204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulick J, Kropp K, Robbins J. The developmentally regulated expression of two linked myosin heavy-chain genes. Eur J Biochem 1987; 169: 79–84
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ng W, Grupp I, Subramaniam A, Robbins J. Cardiac myosin heavy chain mRNA expression and myocardial function in the mouse heart. Circ Res 1991; 69: 1742–50
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman M. The role of embryology in teratological research with particular reference to the development of the neural tube and heart. J Reprod Fertil 1981; 62: 607–23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Viragh Y, Challice C. Origin and differentiation of cardiac muscle cells in the mouse. J Ultrastruct Res 1973; 41: 1–24
   Google Scholar
• Jones W K, Sanchez A, Robbins J. M urine pulmonary myocardium: Developmental analysis of cardiac gene expression. Dev Dyn 1994; 200: 117–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lompre A, Mercardier J, Wisnewsky C, et al. Species- and age-dependent changes in the relative amounts of cardiac isoenzymes in mammals. Dev Biol 1981; 84: 286–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morkin E. Regulation of myosin heavy chain genes in the heart. Circulation 1993; 87: 1451–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rindt H, Gulick J, Knotts S, Neumann J, Robbins J. In vivo analysis of the murine beta-myosin heavy chain gene promoter. J Biol Chem 1993; 268: 5332–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha A M, Friedman D J, Nigro J M, Jakovcic S, Rabinowitz M, Umeda P K. Expression of rabbit ventricular alpha-myosin heavy chain messenger RNA sequences in atrial muscle. J Biol Chem 1984; 259: 6674–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everett A. Isomyosin expression in human heart in early pre- and post-natal life. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1986; 18: 607–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sassoon D, Garner I, Buckingham M. Transcripts of α-cardiac and α-skeletal actins are early markers for myogenesis in the mouse embryo. Development 1988; 104: 155–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emery A. Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Oxford Monographs on Medical Genetics. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1993, No. 24
   Google Scholar
• Koenig M, Hoffman E, Bertelson C, Monaco A, Feener C, Kunkel L. Complete cloning of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) cDNA and preliminary genomic organization of the DMD gene in normal and affected individuals. Cell 1987; 50: 509–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bies R, Phelps S, Cortez M, Roberts R, Caskey C. Human and murine dystrophin mRNA transcripts are differentially expressed during skeletal muscle, heart, and brain development. Nucleic Acids Res 1992; 20: 1725–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houzelstein D, Lyons G E, Chamberlain J, Buckingham M E. Localization of dystrophin gene transcripts during mouse embryogenesis. J Cell Biol 1992; 119: 811–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winegrad S. Regulation of cardiac contractile proteins. Circ Res 1984; 55: 565–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton P J, Bhavsar P K, Brand N J, et al. Gene expression during cardiac development. Symp Soc Exp Biol 1992; 46: 251–64
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ausoni S, De Nardi C, Moretti P, Gorza L, Schiaffino S. Developmental expression of rat cardiac troponin I mRNA. Development 1991; 112: 1041–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin J-P, Lin J-C. Isolation and characterization of cDNA clones encoding embryonic and adult isoforms of rat cardiac troponin T. J Biol Chem 1989; 264: 14471–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper T, Ordahl C. A single cardiac troponin T gene generates embryonic and adult isoforms via developmentally regulated alternate splicing. J Biol Chem 1985; 260: 11140–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabry M, Dhoot G. Identification of and changes in the expression of troponin T isoforms in developing avian and mammalian heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1989; 21: 85–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAuliffe J, Gao L, Solario R. Changes in myofibrillar activation and troponin C Ca2+ binding associated with troponin T isoform switching in the developing rabbit heart. Circ Res 1990; 66: 1204–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molkentin J, Markham B. Myocyte-specific enhancer-binding factor (MEF-2) regulates α-myosin heavy chain gene expression in vitro and in vivo. J Biol Chem 1993; 268: 19512–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin J F, Miano J M, Hustad C M, Copeland N G, Jenkins N A, Olson E N. A Mef/2 gene that generates a muscle-specific isoform via alternative mRNA splicing. Mol Cell Biol 1994; 14: 1647–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin J F, Schwarz J J, Olson E N. Myocyte enhancer factor (MEF) 2C: A tissue-restricted member of the MEF-2 family of transcription factors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 5282–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollock R, Treisman R. Human SRF-related proteins: DNA-binding properties and potential regulatory targets. Genes Dev 1991; 5: 2327–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDermott J C, Cardoso M C, Yu Y T, et al. hMEF2C gene encodes skeletal muscle- and brain-specific transcription factors. Mol Cell Biol 1993; 13: 2564–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leifer D, Krainc D, Yu Y T, et al. MEF2C, a MADS/MEF2-family transcription factor expressed in a laminar distribution in cerebral cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 1546–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breitbart R E, Liang C S, Smoot L B, Laheru D A, Mahdavi V, Nadal-Ginard B. A fourth human MEF2 transcription factor, hMEF2D, is an early marker of the myogenic lineage. Development 1993; 118: 1095–106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edmondson D G, Lyons G E, Martin J F, Olson E N. Mef2 gene expression marks the cardiac and skeletal muscle lineages during mouse embryogenesis. Development 1994; 120: 1251–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien K R, Zhu H, Knowlton K U, et al. Transcriptional regulation during cardiac growth and development. Annu Rev Physiol 1993; 55: 77–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sartorelli V, Hong N, Bishopric N, Kedes L. Myocardial activation of the human cardiac α-actin promoter by helix-loop-helix proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 4047–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang G, Yeh H I, Lin J J. Characterization of cis-regulating elements and trans-activating factors of the rat cardiac troponin T gene. J Biol Chem 1994; 269: 30595–603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benezra R, Davis R, Lockshon D, Turner D, Weintraub H. The protein Id: A negative regulator of helix-loop-helix DNA binding proteins. Cell 1990; 61: 49–59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans S M, O'Brien T X. Expression of the helix-loop-helix factor Id during mouse embryonic development. Dev Biol 1993; 159: 485–99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rezaee M, Isokawa K, Halligan N, Markwald R R, Krug E L. Identification of an extracellular 130-kDa protein involved in early cardiac morphogenesis. J Biol Chem 1993; 268: 14404–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mjaatvedt C H, Krug E L, Markwald R R. Anantiserum (ES1) against a particulate form of extracellular matrix blocks the transition of cardiac endothelium into mesenchyme in culture. Dev Biol 1991; 145: 219–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markwald R R, Fitzharris T P, Manasek F J. Structural development of endocardial cushions. Am J Anat 1977; 748: 85–120
   Google Scholar
• Krug E L, Runyan R B, Markwald R R. Protein extracts from early embryonic hearts initiate cardiac endothelial cytodifferentiation. Dev Biol 1985; 112: 414–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mjaatvedt C H, Lepera R C, Markwald R R. Myocardial specificity for initiating endothelial-mesenchymal cell transition in embryonic chick heart correlates with a particulate distribution of fibronectin. Dev Biol 1987; 119: 59–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mjaatvedt C H, Markwald R R. Induction of an epithelial-mesenchymal transition by an in vivo adheron-like complex. Dev Biol 1989; 136: 118–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinning A R, Krug E L, Markwald R R. Multiple glycoproteins localize to a particulate form of extracellular matrix in regions of the embryonic heart where endothelial cells transform into mesenchyme. Anat Rec 1992; 232: 285–92
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Isokawa K, Rezaee M, Wunsch A, Markwald R R, Krug E L. Identification of transferrin as one of multiple EDTA-extractable extracellular proteins involved in early chick heart morphogenesis. J Cell Biochem 1994; 54: 207–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte D P, Aronow B J, Dry J K, Harmony J AK. Temporally and spatially restricted expression of apolipoprotein J in the developing heart defines discrete stages of valve morphogenesis. Dev Dyn 1994; 201: 290–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan-Starck T C, Witte D P, Aronow B J, Harmony J AK. Apoliprotein J: A membrane policeman?. Curr Opin Lipid 1992; 3: 75–85
   Google Scholar
• Millis A, Hoyle M, Reich E, Mann D. Isolation and characterization of a Mr=38,000 protein from differentiating smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem 1985; 260: 3754–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han C, Suiko M, Liu C, Liu M. Post-translational modifications and binding properties of the apically secreted 80-kDa glycoprotein from Madin-Darby canine kidney cells: Similarities to the c-terminal position of the basolaterally secreted fibronectin. Arch Biochem Biophys 1991; 286: 337–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spirito P, Fu Y M, Yu Z X, Epstein S E, Casscells W. Immunohistochemical localization of basic and acidic fibroblast growth factors in the developing rat heart. Circulation 1991; 84: 322–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Englemann G L, Dionne C A, Jaye M C. Acidic fibroblast growth factor and heart development. Circ Res 1993; 72: 7–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedborg F, Holmgren L, Sandstedt B, Ohlsson R. The cell type-specific IGF-2 expression during early human development correlates to the pattern of overgrowth and neoplasia in the Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. Am J Pathol 1994; 145: 802–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bondy C A, Werner H, Roberts C J, LeRoith D. Cellular pattern of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and type I IGF receptor gene expression in early organogenesis: Comparison with ICF-II gene expression. Mol Endocrinol 1990; 4: 1386–98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu J P, Baker J, Perkins A S, Robertson E J, Efstratiadis A. Mice carrying null mutations of the genes encoding insulin-like growth factor 1 (Igf-1) and type I IGF receptor (Igf1r). Cell 1993; 75: 59–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millan F, Denhez F, Kondaiah P, Akhurst R. Embryonic gene expression patterns of TGF β1, β2, and β3 suggest different developmental functions in vivo. Development 1991; 111: 131–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Runyan R, Potts J, Weeks D. TGF-beta 3-mediated tissue interaction during embryonic heart development. Mol Reprod Dev 1992; 32: 152–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Letterio J J, Geiser A G, Kulkarni A B, Roche N S, Sporn M B, Roberts A B. Maternal rescue of transforming growth factor-beta 1 null mice. Science 1994; 264: 1936–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalter H, Warkany J. Experimental production of congenital malformations in mammals by metabolic procedure. Physiol Rev 1959; 39: 69–115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosa F, Wilk A, Kelsey F. Teratogen update: Vitamin A congeners. Teratology 1986; 33: 355–64
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dolle P, Ruberte E, Leroy P, Morriss-Kay G, Chambron P. Retinoic acid receptors and retinoid binding proteins. I. A systematic study of their differential pattern of transcription during mouse organogenesis. Development 1990; 110: 1133–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sucov H M, Dyson E, Gumeringer C L, Price J, Chien K R, Evans R M. RXR alpha mutant mice establish a genetic basis for vitamin A signaling in heart morphogenesis. Genes Dev 1994; 8: 1007–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson T, Michels V, Lindor N, et al. Autosomal dominant supravalvular aortic stenosis: Localization to chromosome 7. Hum Mol Genet 1993; 2: 869–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran M, Atkinson D, Ewart A, Morris C, Leppert M, Keating M. The elastin gene is disrupted by a translocation associated with supravalvular aortic stenosis. Cell 1993; 73: 159–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvagnet P, Sauer U, Debrus S, et al. Deciphering the molecular genetics of congenital heart disease. Herz 1994; 19: 119–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll D, Burdaf M, Emanuel B. A genetic etiology for DiGeorge syndrome: Consistent deletions and microdeletions of 22q11. Am J Hum Genet 1992; 50: 924–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scambler P, Kelly D, Lindsay E, et al. Velo-cardio-facial syndrome associated with chromosome 22 deletions encompassing the DiGeorge locus. Lancet 1992; 339: 1138–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maron B, Bonow R, Canon R I, Leon M, Epstein S. Hypertrophie cardiomyopathy: Interrelations of clinical manifestations, pathophysiology and therapy. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 780–9; 844–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fananapazir L, Epstein N D. Genotype-phenotype correlations in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Insights provided by comparisons of kindreds with distinct and identical beta-myosin heavy chain gene mutations. Circulation 1994; 89: 22–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anan R, Greve G, Thierfelder L, et al. Prognostic implications of novel beta cardiac myosin heavy chain gene mutations that cause familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 1994; 93: 280–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thierfelder L, Watkins H, MacRae C, et al. Alpha-tropomyosin and cardiac troponin T mutations cause familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: A disease of the sarcomere. Cell 1994; 77: 701–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman E, Brown R, Kunkel L. Dysuophin: The protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy locus. Cell 1987; 51: 919–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malhotra S B, Hart K A, Klamut H J, et al. Frame-shift deletions in patients with Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy. Science 1988; 242: 755–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monaco A P, Bertelson C J, Liechti-Gallati S, Moser H, Kunkel L M. An explanation for the phenotypic differences between patients bearing partial deletions of the DMD locus. Genomics 1988; 2: 90–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chelly J, Gilgenkrantz H, Lambert M, et al. Effect of dystrophin gene deletions on mRNA levels and processing in Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies. Cell 1990; 63: 1239–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Towbin J A, Hejtmancik J F, Brink P, et al. X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy. Molecular genetic evidence of linkage to the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (dystrophin) gene at the Xp21 locus. Circulation 1993; 87: 1854–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marian A, Roberts R. Molecular basis of hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathy. Tex Heart Inst J 1994; 21: 6–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romano C. Congenital cardiac arrhythmia. Lancet 1965; 1: 658–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward O. A new familial cardiac syndrome in children. J Ir Med Assoc 1964; 54: 103–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keating M, Atkinson D, Dunn C, Timothy K, Vincent G, Leppert M. Consistent linkage of the long QT syndrome to the Harvey ras-1 locus on chromosome 11. Am J Hum Genet 1991; 49: 1335–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keating M, Atkinson D, Dunn C, Timothy K, Vincent G, Leppert M. Linkage of a cardiac arrhythmia, the long QT syndrome, and the Harvey ras-1 gene. Science 1991; 252: 704–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang C, Atkinson D, Towbin J, et al. Two long QT syndrome loci map to chromosomes 3 and 7 with evidence for further heterogeneity. Nat Genet 1994; 8: 141–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanguinetti M, Jiang C, Curran M, Keating M. A mechanistic link between an inherited and an acquired cardiac arrhthymia: HERG encodes the IKr potassium channel. Cell 1995; 81: 299–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran M, Splawski I, Timothy K, Vincent G, Green E, Keating M. A molecular basis for cardiac arrhythmia: HERG mutations cause long QT syndrome. Cell 1995; 80: 795–803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramaniam A, Gulick J, Neumann J, Knotts S, Robbins J. Transgenic analysis of the thyroid-responsive elements in the alpha-cardiac myosin heavy chain gene promoter. J Biol Chem 1993; 268: 4331–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soonpaa M H, Koh G Y, Klug M G, Field L J. Formation of nascent intercalated disks between grafted fetal cardiomyocytes and host myocardium. Science 1994; 264: 98–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milano C A, Allen L F, Rockman H A, et al. Enhanced myocardial function in transgenic mice overexpressing the beta 2-adrenergic receptor. Science 1994; 264: 582–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirshenbaum L, MacLellan W, Mazur W, French B, Schneider M. Highly efficient gene transfer into adult ventricular myocytes by recombinant adenovirus. J Clin Invest 1993; 92: 381–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein K L, Klintworth G K, Bernstein A, Breitman M L. Embryology and morphology of microphthalmia in transgenic mice expressing a gamma F-ctystallin/diphtheria toxin A hybrid gene. Lab Invest 1992; 67: 31–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Key B, Liu L, Potter S S, Kaur S, Akeson R. Lens structures exist transiently in development of transgenic mice carrying an alpha-crystallin-diphtheria toxin hybrid gene. Exp Eye Res 1992; 55: 357–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelton R, Dickinson M, Moses H, Hogan B. In situ hybridization analyses of TGF-β3 RNA expression during mouse development: Comparative studies with TGF-ß1 and β2. Development 1990; 110: 609–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar