249
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Toxicological History

Death of Socrates: a likely case of poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) poisoning

Pages 56-60 | Received 14 Nov 2023, Accepted 18 Jan 2024, Published online: 13 Feb 2024

References

  • Taylor CCW. Socrates: a very short introduction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2019.
  • Trendennick H editor. Plato. The last days of Socrates. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics; 1969.
  • Crooks J. Socrates’ last words: another look at an ancient riddle. The Class Q. 1998;48(1):117–125. doi:10.1093/cq/48.1.117.
  • Gill C. 2002. Death of Socrates. In: Brickhouse TC and Smith ND, editors. The trial and execution of Socrates. Sources and controversies. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2002. p. 251–255.
  • Bloch E. Hemlock poisoning and the death of Socrates. Did Plato tell the truth? In: brickhouse TC and Smith ND, editors. The trial and execution of Socrates. Sources and controversies. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2002. p.255–278.
  • Ober W. Did Socrates die of hemlock poisoning? New York State J Med. 1977;72:254–258.
  • Sullivan J. A note on the death of Socrates. The Class. Q. 2001;51(2):608–610. doi:10.1093/cq/51.2.608.
  • Wilson E. The death of Socrates: hero, villain, chatterbox, saint. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press; 2007.
  • Dayan AD. What killed Socrates? Toxicological considerations and questions. Postgrad Med J. 2009;85(999):34–37. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2008.074922.
  • Bellos D. Is that a fish in your ear? Translation and the meaning of everything. New York (NY): Faber and Faber; 2011.
  • Dawkins RM. The semantics of Greek names for plants. J. Hell. Stud. 1936;56(1):1–11. doi:10.2307/626030.
  • Davies ML, Davies TAL. Hemlock: murder before the lord. Med Sci Law. 1994;34(4):331–333. doi:10.1177/002580249403400411.
  • Bonner RJ. The use of hemlock for capital punishment. Harvard Stud Class Philol. 1940; Suppl 1:299–302.
  • Kucharski J. Capital punishment in classical Athens. Scripta Classica. 2015;12:13–28.
  • Hastings GT. Common names of common plants: plant lore from the dictionary. Torreya. 1937;37:1–9.
  • Hotti R, Rischer H. The killer of Socrates: coniine and related alkaloids in the plant kingdom. Molecules. 2017;22(11):1962–1995. doi:10.3390/molecules22111962.
  • Vetter J. Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.). Food Chem Toxicol. 2004;42(9):1373–1382. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2004.04.009.
  • Reynolds T. Hemlock alkaloids from Socrates to Poison Aloes. Phytochemistry. 2005;66(12):1399–1406. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.04.039.
  • de Boer J. The Death of Socrates. A historical and experimental study on the actions of coniine and Conium maculatum. Arch Internat Pharmacodynamie Ther. 1950;83:473–490.
  • Bowman WC, Sanghvi IS. Pharmacological Actions of Hemlock (Conium maculatum) alkaloids. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1963;15(1):1–25. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7158.1963.tb12738.x.
  • Arihan O, Boz M, Iskit AB, et al. Antinociceptive action of Coniine in Mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;125(2):274–278. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.06.032.
  • Christison R. On the poisonous properties of hemlock, and its Alkaloid Conia. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 1836;13(2):383–417. doi:10.1017/S0080456800024674.
  • Gibson DM. Conium, a study. Br Homeopath J. 1967;56(03):176–180. doi:10.1016/S0007-0785(67)80027-9.
  • Rizzi D, Basile C, Di Maggio A, et al. Clinical spectrum of accidental hemlock poisoning: neurotoxic manifestations, rhabdomyolysis and acute tubular necrosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1991;6(12):939–943. doi:10.1093/ndt/6.12.939.
  • Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Beasley DMG. Nicotinic plant poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2009;47(8):771–781. doi:10.1080/15563650903252186.
  • Karakasi MV, Tologkos S, Papadatou V, et al. Conium maculatum intoxication: literature review and case report on hemlock poisoning. Forensic Sci Rev. 2019;31:23–36.
  • Barceloux DG. Medical toxicology of natural substances. Hoboken NJ: Wiley; 1998.
  • Gow ASF, Scholfield AF editors. Nicander: the poems and poetical fragments (Greek texts and commentaries). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1953.
  • Beck LY editor. Dioscorides De Materia Medica. Altertumswissenschaftliche Texte und Studien. 4th enlarged edition. Hildesheim: Olms-Weidmann; 2020.
  • Culpeper N. Culpeper’s complete herbal. London: Arcturus Publishing; 2009.
  • Grieves M. A modern herbal. Available from www.botanical.com. (retrieved 8 November 2023); 1931.
  • Daugherty CG. The death of Socrates and the Toxicology of Hemlock. J Med Biogr. 1995;3(3):178–182. doi:10.1177/096777209500300310.
  • Wepfer JJ. Cicutae aquaticae historia et noxae. Commentario illustrate. Available from https://wellcomecollection.org/works/cdc2qeu5. (retrieved 10 November 2023);1679.
  • von Störck A. An essay on the medical nature of hemlock. London: J Nourse; 1760.
  • Harley J. The old vegetable neurotics: Hemlock, opium, belladonna and henbane. London: Macmillan;1869.
  • Bennett JH. Clinical lectures on the principles and practice of medicine. New York: William Wood; 1860.
  • Kishioka S, Kiguchi N, Kobayashi Y, et al. Nicotine effects and the endogenous opioid system. J Pharmacol Sci. 2014;125(2):117–124. doi:10.1254/jphs.14r03cp.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.