31,912
Views
99
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Practice Guideline

Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning: an evidence-based consensus guideline for out-of-hospital management

, M.P.H. , M.D., , M.D., , M.D., , M.P.H. , M.D., , Pharm.D., , Pharm.D., , M.D., , Pharm.D., , Pharm.D., , M.D., , Pharm.D., , M.S.N. & , Pharm.D. show all
Pages 203-233 | Received 20 Jul 2006, Accepted 20 Jul 2006, Published online: 07 Oct 2008

References

  • Watson WA, Litovitz TL, Rodgers GC, Klein-Schwartz W, Reid N, Youniss J, Flanagan A, Wruk KM. 2004 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 2005; 23: 589–666
  • Freeman JW, Mundy GR, Beattie RR, Ryan C. Cardiac abnormalities in poisoning with tricyclic antidepressants. Br Med J 1969; 2: 610–611
  • Callaham M, Kassel D. Epidemiology of fatal tricyclic antidepressant ingestion: implications for management. Ann Emerg Med 1985; 14: 1–9
  • Jick SS, Dean AD, Jick H. Antidepressants and suicide. BMJ 1995; 310: 215–218
  • Olson KR, Kearney TE, Dyer JE, Benowitz NL, Blanc PD. Seizures associated with poisoning and drug overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1993; 11: 565–568
  • Taboulet P, Michard F, Muszynski J, Galliot-Guilley M, Bismuth C. Cardiovascular repercussions of seizures during cyclic antidepressant poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1995; 33: 205–211
  • Crome P, Newman B. Fatal tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. J R Soc Med 1979; 72: 649–653
  • Henry JA. A fatal toxicity index for antidepressant poisoning. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1989; 354: 37–45
  • Henry JA, Alexander CA, Sener EK. Relative mortality from overdose of antidepressants. BMJ 1995; 310: 221–224
  • Farmer RD, Pinder RM. Why do fatal overdose rates vary between antidepressants?. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1989; 354: 25–35
  • Wedin GP, Oderda GM, Klein-Schwartz W, Gorman RL. Relative toxicity of cyclic antidepressants. Ann Emerg Med 1986; 15: 797–804
  • Amitai Y, Frischer H. Excess fatality from desipramine and dosage recommendations. Ther Drug Monit 2004; 26: 468–473
  • Amitai Y, Frischer H. Excess fatality from desipramine in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 45: 54–60
  • Baldessarini RJ. Drugs and the treatment of psychiatric disorders: depression and anxiety disorders. Goodman & Gilman's the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics10th, JG Hardman, LE Limbird. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001; 447–483
  • Cohen LG, Biederman J, Wilens TE, Spencer TJ, Mick E, Faraone SV, Prince J, Flood JG. Desipramine clearance in children and adolescents: absence of effect of development and gender. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38: 79–85
  • Swartz CM, Sherman A. The treatment of tricyclic antidepressant overdose with repeated charcoal. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1984; 4: 336–340
  • Rauber A, Maroncelli R. Prescribing practices and knowledge of tricyclic antidepressants among physicians caring for children. Pediatrics 1984; 73: 107–109
  • Brown-Cartwright D, Brater DC, Barnett CC, Richardson CT. Effect of doxepin on basal gastric acid and salivary secretion in patients with duodenal ulcer. Ann Intern Med 1986; 104: 204–206
  • Poisindex system, RK Klasco. Thomson Micromedex, edition expires, Greenwood Village, CO March, 2004
  • Miadinich EK, Carlow TJ. Total gaze paresis in amitriptyline overdose. Neurology 1977; 27: 695
  • Smith MS. Amitriptyline ophthalmoplegia. Ann Intern Med 1979; 91: 793
  • Roberge RJ, Martin TG, Hodgman M, Benitez JG. Acute chemical pancreatitis associated with a tricyclic antidepressant (clomipramine) overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1994; 32: 425–429
  • Mullins ME, Cristofani CB, Warden CR, Cleary JF. Amitriptyline-associated seizures in a toddler with Munchausen-by-proxy. Pediatr Emerg Care 1999; 15: 202–205
  • Winrow AP. Amitriptyline-associated seizures in a toddler with Munchausen-by-proxy. Pediatr Emerg Care 1999; 15: 462–463
  • Simon FA, Treuting JJ. Nonaccidental poisoning in a two-month-old child. Clin Toxicol 1981; 18: 37–40
  • Watson JB, Davies JM, Hunter JL. Nonaccidental poisoning in childhood. Arch Dis Child 1979; 54: 143–144
  • Shaneyfelt TM, Mayo-Smith MF, Rothwangl J. Are guidelines following guidelines? The methodological quality of clinical practice guidelines in the peer-reviewed medical literature. JAMA 1999; 281: 1900–1905
  • Shiffman RN, Shekelle P, Overhage JM, Slutsky J, Grimshaw J, Deshpande AM. Standardized reporting of clinical practice guidelines: a proposal from the Conference on Guideline Standardization. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139: 493–498
  • Benowitz N. Antidepressants, tricyclic. Poisoning & Drug Overdose4th, KR Olson. McGraw-Hill, New York 2004; 90–93
  • Dawson AH. Cyclic antidepressants. Medical Toxicology3rd, RC Dart. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2004; 852–861
  • Geis GL, Bond GR. Antidepressant overdose: tricyclics, selective serotonin reputake inhibitors, and atypical antidepressants. Pediatric Toxicology: Diagnosis & Management of the Poisoned Child, TR Erickson, WR Ahrens, SE Aks, CR Baum, LJ Ling. McGraw-Hill, New York 2005; 297–302
  • Liebelt EL, Francis PD. Cyclic antidepressants. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies7th, LR Goldfrank, MA Howland, NE Flomenbaum, RS Hoffman, NA Lewin, LS Nelson. McGraw-Hill, New York 2002; 847–864
  • Pentel PR, Keyler DE, Haddad LM. Tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Clinical Management of Poisoning and Drug Overdose3rd, LM Haddad, MW Shannon, JF Winchester. WB Saunders, Philadelphia 1998; 437–451
  • http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad314.pdf, Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Grummer-Strawn LM, Flegal KM, Guo SS, Wei R, Mei Z, Curtin LR, Roche AF, Johnson CL. CDC growth charts: Unied States. Advance data from vital and health statistics; no. 314. Hyattsville, MD; National Center for Health Statistics, 2004.
  • McFee RB, Mofenson HC, Caraccio TR. A nationwide survey of the management of unintentional-low dose tricyclic antidepressant ingestions involving asymptomatic children: implications for the development of an evidence-based clinical guideline. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2000; 38: 15–19
  • McFee RB, Mofenson HC, Caraccio TR. A nationwide survey of poison control centers comparing 1999 to 1998 triage and management of asymptomatic children who ingested tricyclic antidepressant. Vet Hum Toxicol 2001; 43: 305–307
  • Steel CM, O'Duffy J, Brown SS. Clinical effects and treatment of imipramine and amitriptyline poisoning in children. Br Med J 1967; 3: 663–667
  • Goel KM, Shanks RA. Amitriptyline and imipramine poisoning in children. Br Med J 1974; 1: 261–263
  • Berkovitch M, Matsui D, Fogelman R, Komar L, Hamilton R, Johnson D. Assessment of the terminal 40-millisecond QRS vector in children with a history of tricyclic antidepressant ingestion. Pediatr Emerg Care 1995; 11: 75–77
  • Biggs JT, Spiker DG, Petit JM, Ziegler VE. Tricyclic antidepressant overdose: incidence of symptoms. JAMA 1977; 238: 135–138
  • Bouffard Y, Palmier B, Bouletreau P, Motin J. Intoxication aiguë par les antidépresseurs tricycliques. Critères de gravité et traitement. Étude de 16 observations avec manifestations cardio-vasculaires. Ann Med Interne (Paris) 1982; 133: 256–260
  • Brown TC, Dwyer ME, Stocks JG. Antidepressant overdosage in children--a new menace. Med J Aust 1971; 2: 848–851
  • Christensen KN, Andersen HH. Deliberate poisoning with tricyclic antidepressants treated in an intensive care unit. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 1977; 41(Suppl 2)511–515
  • deCastro FJ, Rost K, Jaeger R. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning: clinical series. Vet Hum Toxicol 1980; 22: 68–69
  • McFee RB, Caraccio TR, Mofenson HC. Tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) ingestions: pediatric toxicological management considerations by a regional poison control center (RPCC) [abstract]. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1998; 36: 518
  • McFee RB, Caraccio TR, Mofenson HC. Selected tricyclic antidepressant ingestions involving children 6 years old or less. Acad Emerg Med 2001; 8: 139–144
  • Spiller HA, Baker SD, Krenzelok EP, Cutino L. Use of dosage as a triage guideline for unintentional cyclic antidepressant (UCA) ingestions in children. Am J Emerg Med 2003; 21: 422–424
  • Strom J, Sloth Madsen P, Nygaard Nielsen N, Bredgaard Sorensen M. Acute self-poisoning with tricyclic antidepressants in 295 consecutive patients treated in an ICU. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1984; 28: 666–670
  • Jue SG. Desipramine--accidental poisoning. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1976; 10: 52–53
  • Giles HM. Imipramine poisoning in childhood. Br Med J 1963; 5361: 844–846
  • Serafimovski N, Thorball N, Asmussen I, Lunding M. Tricyclic antidepressive poisoning with special reference to cardiac complications. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 1975; 57: 55–63
  • Chamsi-Pasha H, Barnes PC. Myocardial infarction: a complication of amitriptyline overdose. Postgrad Med J 1988; 64: 968–970
  • Bramble MG, Lishman AH, Purdon J, Diffey BL, Hall RJ. An analysis of plasma levels and 24-hour ECG recordings in tricyclic antidepressant poisoning: implications for management. Q J Med 1985; 56: 357–366
  • Ellison DW, Pentel PR. Clinical features and consequences of seizures due to cyclic antidepressant overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1989; 7: 5–10
  • Noto R, Robert J, Hanote P. Traitement d'urgence et transport des intoxications aiguës par les dérivés imipraminiques (à propos de 70 cas). Agressologie 1970; 11: 515–523
  • Pellinen TJ, Farkkila M, Heikkila J, Luomanmaki K. Electrocardiographic and clinical features of tricyclic antidepressant intoxication. A survey of 88 cases and outlines of therapy. Ann Clin Res 1987; 19: 12–17
  • Bye C, Clubley M, Peck AW. Drowsiness, impaired performance and tricyclic antidepressant drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1978; 6: 155–161
  • Karkkainen S, Neuvonen PJ. Pharmacokinetics of amitriptyline influenced by oral charcoal and urine pH. Int J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 24: 326–332
  • Hulten BA, Heath A, Knudsen K, Nyberg G, Starmark JE, Martensson E. Severe amitriptyline overdose: relationship between toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1992; 30: 171–179
  • Köppel C, Wiegreffe A, Tenczer J. Clinical course, therapy, outcome and analytical data in amitriptyline and combined amitriptyline/chlordiazepoxide overdose. Hum Exp Toxicol 1992; 11: 458–465
  • Rudorfer MV, Robins E. Amitriptyline overdose: clinical effects on tricyclic antidepressant plasma levels. J Clin Psychiatry 1982; 43: 457–460
  • Siddiqui JH, Vakassi MM, Ghani MF. Cardiac effects of amitriptyline overdosage. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 1977; 22: 321–325
  • Aquilonius SM, Hedstrand U. The use of physostigmine as an antidote in tricyclic anti-depressant intoxication. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1978; 22: 40–45
  • Pall H, Czech K, Kotzaurek R, Kleinberger G, Pichler M. Experiences with physostigminesalicylate in tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 1977; 41: 171–178
  • Vohra J, Burrows G, Hunt D, Sloman G. The effect of toxic and therapeutic doses of tricyclic antidepressant drugs on intracardiac conduction. Eur J Cardiol 1975; 3: 219–227
  • Dale O, Hole A. Biphasic time-course of serum concentrations of clomipramine and desmethylclomipramine after a near-fatal overdose. Vet Hum Toxicol 1994; 36: 309–310
  • Bucher HW, Stucki P. Kardial komplikationen bei einer vergiftung mit desipramine (Pertofran). Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1967; 97: 519–521
  • Callaham M. Admission criteria for tricyclic antidepressant ingestion. West J Med 1982; 137: 425–429
  • Chahine RA, Castellanos A, Jr. Myocardial toxicity produced by desipramine overdosage. Chest 1971; 59: 566–568
  • Colvard C, Jr. Overdosage of desipramine hydrochloride with marked electrocardiographic abnormalities. South Med J 1968; 61: 1218, passim
  • Hagerman GA, Hanashiro PK. Reversal of tricyclic-antidepressant-induced cardiac conduction abnormalities by phenytoin. Ann Emerg Med 1981; 10: 82–86
  • Lee WR, Sheikh MU, Covarrubias EA, Slotkoff LM. Variant ventricular tachycardia in desipramine toxicity. South Med J 1981; 74: 1268–1269
  • Shannon M. Toxicology reviews: physostigmine. Pediatr Emerg Care 1998; 14: 224–226
  • Williams AJ. “Desipramine” overdosage. Br Med J 1964; 1: 371–372
  • Zuckerman GB, Conway EE, Jr. Pulmonary complications following tricyclic antidepressant overdose in an adolescent. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27: 572–574
  • Scheinin M, Virtanen R, Iisalo E. Effect of single and repeated doses of activated charcoal on the pharmacokinetics of doxepin. Int J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 23: 38–42
  • Bastani JR. Physostigmine treatment of tricyclic overdosage in psychosis. Psychosomatics 1979; 20: 847–848
  • Cordonnier J, Heyndrickx A, Jordaens L, Brijs R, De Keyser R. A fatal intoxication due to doxepin. J Anal Toxicol 1983; 7: 161–164
  • Janson PA, Watt JB, Hermos JA. Doxepin overdose: success with physostigmine and failure with neostigmine in reversing toxicity. JAMA 1977; 237: 2632–2633
  • Oliver JS, Watson AA. Doxepin poisoning. Med Sci Law 1974; 14: 280–283
  • Williams JO. Respiratory depression in tricyclic overdose. Br Med J 1972; 1: 631
  • Wrenn K, Smith BA, Slovis CM. Profound alkalemia during treatment of tricyclic antidepressant overdose: a potential hazard of combined hyperventilation and intravenous bicarbonate. Am J Emerg Med 1992; 10: 553–555
  • Goldberg MJ, Park GD, Spector R, Fischer LJ, Feldman RD. Lack of effect of oral activated charcoal on imipramine clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985; 38: 350–353
  • Vohra J, Hunt D, Burrows G, Sloman G. Intracardiac conduction defects following overdose of tricyclic antidepressant drugs. Eur J Cardiol 1975; 2: 443–452
  • Stinnett JL, Valentine J, Abrutyn E. Nortriptyline hydrochloride overdosage. JAMA 1968; 204: 69–71
  • Brackenridge RG, Peters TJ, Watson JM. Myocardial damage in amitriptyline and nortriptyline poisoning. Scott Med J 1968; 13: 208–210
  • Duke WW, Horton JP. Nortriptyline (Aventyl) overdosage. South Med J 1969; 62: 1348–1349
  • Elliott CG, Colby TV, Kelly TM, Hicks HG. Charcoal lung. Bronchiolitis obliterans after aspiration of activated charcoal. Chest 1989; 96: 672–674
  • Lipper B, Bell A, Gaynor B. Recurrent hypotension immediately after seizures in nortriptyline overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1994; 12: 452–453
  • McKinney PE, Rasmussen R. Reversal of severe tricyclic antidepressant-induced cardiotoxicity with intravenous hypertonic saline solution. Ann Emerg Med 2003; 42: 20–24
  • Rudorfer MV, Robins E. Fatal nortriptyline overdose, plasma levels, and in vivo methylation of tricyclic antidepressants. Am J Psychiatry 1981; 138: 982–983
  • Sedal L, Korman MG, Williams PO, Mushin G. Overdosage of tricyclic antidepressants. A report of two deaths and a prospective study of 24 patients. Med J Aust 1972; 2: 74–79
  • Chin LS, Havill JH, Rothwell RP, Bishop BG. Use of physostigmine in tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Anaesth Intensive Care 1976; 4: 138–140
  • Forsythe WI, Merrett JD, Redmond A. Controlled clinical trial of trimipramine and placebo in the treatment of enuresis. Br J Clin Pract 1972; 26: 119–121
  • Bartels MG, Varley CK, Mitchell J, Stamm SJ. Pediatric cardiovascular effects of imipramine and desipramine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30: 100–103
  • Brown D, Winsberg BG, Bailer I, Press M. Imipramine therapy and seizures: three children treated for hyperactive behavioral disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1973; 130: 210–212
  • Petti TA, Campbell M. Imipramine and seizures. Am J Psychiatry 1975; 132: 538–540
  • Leonard HL, Meyer MC, Swedo SE, Richter D, Hamburger SD, Allen AJ, Rapoport JL, Tucker E. Electrocardiographic changes during desipramine and clomipramine treatment in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiat 1995; 34: 1460–1468
  • Glassman AH, Giardina EV, Perel JM, Bigger JT, Kantor SJ, Perel JM, Davies M. Clinical characteristics of imipramine induced orthostatic hypotension. Lancet 1979; 1: 468–472
  • Wilens TE, Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Geller B, Schleifer D, Spencer TJ, Birmaher B, Goldblatt A. Cardiovascular effects of therapeutic doses of tricyclic antidepressants in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35: 1491–1501
  • Biederman J. Sudden death in children treated with a tricyclic antidepressant. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30: 495–498
  • Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Goldblatt A, Lapey KA, Doyle A, Hesslein PS. A naturalistic study of 24-hour electrocardiographic recordings and echocardiographic findings in children and adolescents treated with desipramine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993; 32: 805–813
  • Miescke KJ, Musa MN. On mixtures of three normal populations caused by monogenic inheritance: application to desipramine metabolism. J Psychiat Neurosci 1994; 19: 295–300
  • Musa MN, Miescke KJ. Pharmacogenetics of desipramine metabolism. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994; 32: 126–130
  • Varley CK, McClellan J. Case study: two additional sudden deaths with tricyclic antidepressants. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36: 390–394
  • Wilens TE, Stern TA, O'Gara PT. Adverse cardiac effects of combined neuroleptic ingestion and tricyclic antidepressant overdose. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10: 51–54
  • Kaumeier HS, Haase HJ. A double-blind comparison between amoxapine and amitriptyline in depressed in-patients. Int J Clin Pharmacol 1980; 18: 177–184
  • Veith RC, Bloom V, Bielski R, Friedel RO. ECG effects of comparable plasma concentrations of desipramine and amitriptyline. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982; 2: 394–398
  • Burckhardt D, Raeder E, Muller V, Imhof P, Neubauer H. Cardiovascular effects of tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressa3nts. JAMA 1978; 239: 213–216
  • Milner G, Buckler EG. Adynamic ileus and amitriptyline: three case reports. Med J Aust 1964; 14: 921–922
  • Rechlin T. Decreased R-R variation: a criterium for overdosage of tricyclic psychotropic drugs. Intens Care Med 1995; 21: 598–601
  • Vohra J, Burrows GD, Sloman G. Assessment of cardiovascular side effects of therapeutic doses of tricyclic antidepressant drugs. Aust N Z J Med 1975; 5: 7–11
  • Burkitt EA, Sutcliffe CK. Paralytic ileus after amitriptyline (“Tryptizol”). Brit Med J 1961; 164: 8–1649
  • Goldsmith HJ. Amitriptyline poisoning. Lancet 1965; 2: 640–641
  • Giller EL, Jr., Bialos DS, Docherty JP, Jatlow P, Harkness L. Chronic amitriptyline toxicity. Am J Psychiatry 1979; 136: 458–459
  • Heiser JF, Wilbert DE. Reversal of delirium induced by tricyclic antidepressant drugs with physostigmine. Am J Psychiatry 1974; 131: 1275–1277
  • Johnson PB. Physostigmine in tricyclic antidepressant overdose. JACEP 1976; 5: 443–445
  • Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Sheitman BB, Tsaltas MO. Adverse effects of clomipramine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36: 1165–1166
  • Schubert DSP, Miller SI. Are divided doses of tricyclic antidepressants necessary?. J Nerv Ment Dis 1978; 166: 875–877
  • Rapoport JL, Mikkelsen EJ, Zavadil A, Nee L, Gruenau C, Mendelson W, Gillin JC. Childhood enuresis. II. Psychopathology, tricyclic concentration in plasma, and antienuretic effect. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980; 37: 1146–1152
  • Schroeder JS, Mullin AV, Elliott GR, Steiner H, Nichols M, Gordon A, Paulos M. Cardiovascular effects of desipramine in children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989; 28: 376–379
  • Preskorn SH, Fast GA. Tricyclic antidepressant-induced seizures and plasma drug concentration. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53: 160–162
  • Riddle MA, Nelson JC, Kleinman CS, Rasmusson A, Leckman JF, King RA, Cohen DJ. Sudden death in children receiving Norpramin: a review of three reported cases and commentary. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30: 104–108
  • Wagner KD, Fershtman M. Potential mechanism of desipramine-related sudden death in children. Psychosomatics 1993; 34: 80–83
  • Varley CK. Sudden death related to selected tricyclic antidepressants in children: epidemiology, mechanisms and clinical implications. Paediatr Drugs 2001; 3: 613–627
  • Riddle MA, Geller B, Ryan N. Another sudden death in a child treated with desipramine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993; 32: 792–797
  • Fritz GK, Rockney RM, Yeung AS. Plasma levels and efficacy of imipramine treatment for enuresis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatryry 1994; 33: 60–64
  • Saraf KR, Klein DF, Gittelman-Klein R, Groff S. Imipramine side effects in children. Psychopharmacologia 1974; 37: 265–274
  • Azima H, Vispo RH. Imipramine; a potent new anti-depressant compound. Am J Psychiatry 1958; 115: 245–246
  • Fletcher SE, Case CL, Sallee FR, Hand LD, Gillette PC. Prospective study of the electrocardiographic effects of imipramine in children. J Pediatr 1993; 122: 652–654
  • Winsberg BG, Goldstein S, Yepes LE, Perel JM. Imipramine and electrocardiographic abnormalities in hyperactive children. Am J Psychiatry 1975; 132: 542–545
  • Saraf K, Klein DF. The safety of a single daily dose schedule for imipramine. Am J Psychiatry 1971; 128: 483–484
  • Brooke G, Weatherly JRC. Imipramine. Lancet 1959; 2: 568–569
  • English D. Balanced treatment of depression. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 1959; 1: 135–138
  • Mann AM, Catterson AG, Macpherson AS. Toxicity of imipramine: report on serious side effects and massive overdosage. Can Med Assoc J 1959; 81: 23–28
  • Levene LJ, Lascelles CF. Imipramine. Lancet 1959; 2: 675
  • Moccetti T, Lichtlen P, Albert H, Meier E, Imbach P. Kardiotoxizität der trizyklischen antidepressiva. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1971; 101: 1–10
  • Williams RB, Sherter C. Cardiac complications of tricyclic antidepressant therapy. Ann Intern Med 1971; 74: 395–398
  • Reed K, Smith RC, Schoolar JC, Hu R, Leelavathi DE, Mann E, Lippman L. Cardiovascular effects of nortriptyline in geriatric patients. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137: 986–988
  • Ziegler VE, Co BT, Biggs JT. Plasma nortriptyline levels and ECG findings. Am J Psychiatry 1977; 134: 441–443
  • Schneider LS. QRS duration in acute overdose of tricyclic antidepressants. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 989
  • Unrecognized, excessive dose of nortriptyline. Int Pharm J 1998; 12: 145–146
  • Hulten BA, Heath A. Clinical aspects of tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Acta Med Scand 1983; 213: 275–278
  • Boehnert MT, Lovejoy FH, Jr. Value of the QRS duration versus the serum drug level in predicting seizures and ventricular arrhythmias after an acute overdose of tricyclic antidepressants. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 474–479
  • Niemann JT, Bessen HA, Rothstein RJ, Laks MM. Electrocardiographic criteria for tricyclic antidepressant cardiotoxicity. Am J Cardiol 1986; 57: 1154–1159
  • Wolfe TR, Caravati EM, Rollins DE. Terminal 40-ms frontal plane QRS axis as a marker for tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1989; 18: 348–351
  • Liebelt EL, Francis PD, Woolf AD. ECG lead aVR versus QRS interval in predicting seizures and arrhythmias in acute tricyclic antidepressant toxicity. Ann Emerg Med 1995; 26: 195–201
  • Bailey B, Buckley NA, Amre DK. A meta-analysis of prognostic indicators to predict seizures, arrhythmias or death after tricyclic antidepressant overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42: 877–888
  • Buckley BM, Boldy DA, Vale JA. The importance of pH and blood gas monitoring after overdoses of tricyclic antidepressants. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984; 289: 185
  • Cronin AJ, Khalil R, Little TM. Poisoning with tricyclic antidepressants: an avoidable cause of childhood deaths. Br Med J 1979; 1: 722
  • Freeman JW, Loughhead MG. Beta blockade in the treatment of tricyclic antidepressant overdosage. Med J Aust 1973; 1: 1233–1235
  • Harrigan RA, Brady WJ. ECG abnormalities in tricyclic antidepressant ingestion. Am J Emerg Med 1999; 17: 387–393
  • Masters AB. Delayed death in imipramine poisoning. Br Med J 1967; 3: 866–867
  • McAlpine SB, Calabro JJ, Robinson MD, Burkle FM, Jr. Late death in tricyclic antidepressant overdose revisited. Ann Emerg Med 1986; 15: 1349–1352
  • McMahon AJ. Amitriptyline overdose complicated by intestinal pseudo-obstruction and caecal perforation. Postgrad Med J 1989; 65: 948–949
  • Foulke GE, Albertson TE, Walby WF. Tricyclic antidepressant overdose: emergency department findings as predictors of clinical course. Am J Emerg Med 1986; 4: 496–500
  • Hulten BA, Adams R, Askenasi R, Dallos V, Dawling S, Volans G, Heath A. Predicting severity of tricyclic antidepressant overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1992; 30: 161–170
  • Starkey IR, Lawson AA. Poisoning with tricyclic and related antidepressants--a ten-year review. Q J Med 1980; 49: 33–49
  • Greenland P, Howe TA. Cardiac monitoring in tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Heart Lung 1981; 10: 856–859
  • Petit JM, Spiker DG, Ruwitch JF, Ziegler VE, Weiss AN, Biggs JT. Tricyclic antidepressant plasma levels and adverse effects after overdose. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1977; 21: 47–51
  • Tokarski GF, Young MJ. Criteria for admitting patients with tricyclic antidepressant overdose. J Emerg Med 1988; 6: 121–124
  • Stern TA, O'Gara PT, Mulley AG, Singer DE, Thibault GE. Complications after overdose with tricyclic antidepressants. Crit Care Med 1985; 13: 672–674
  • Fasoli RA, Glauser FL. Cardiac arrhythmias and ECG abnormalities in tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Clin Toxicol 1981; 18: 155–163
  • Emerman CL, Connors AF, Jr., Burma GM. Level of consciousness as a predictor of complications following tricyclic overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1987; 16: 326–330
  • Foulke GE. Identifying toxicity risk early after antidepressant overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1995; 13: 123–126
  • Pentel P, Sioris L. Incidence of late arrhythmias following tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Clin Toxicol 1981; 18: 543–548
  • Callaham M. Tricyclic antidepressant overdose. JACEP 1979; 8: 413–425
  • Banahan BF, Jr., Schelkun PH. Tricyclic antidepressant overdose: conservative management in a community hospital with cost-saving implications. J Emerg Med 1990; 8: 451–454
  • Glassman AH, Johnson LL, Giardina EG, Walsh BT, Roose SP, Cooper TB, Bigger JT, Jr. The use of imipramine in depressed patients with congestive heart failure. JAMA 1983; 250: 1997–2001
  • Rosenstein DL, Nelson JC, Jacobs SC. Seizures associated with antidepressants: A review. J Clin Psychiatry 1993; 54: 289–299
  • Molloy DW, Penner SB, Rabson J, Hall KW. Use of sodium bicarbonate to treat tricyclic antidepressant-induced arrhythmias in a patient with alkalosis. Can Med Assoc J 1984; 130: 1457–1459
  • Phillips S, Brent J, Kulig K, Heiligenstein J, Birkett M. Fluoxetine versus tricyclic antidepressants: a prospective multicenter study of antidepressant drug overdoses. The antidepressant study group. J Emerg Med 1997; 15: 439–445
  • Robins MH. Survival following massive intoxication with Tofranil (imipramine hydrochloride). J Am Osteopath Assoc 1971; 70: 898–902
  • Shannon M, Lovejoy FH, Jr. Pulmonary consequences of severe tricyclic antidepressant ingestion. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1987; 25: 443–461
  • Crome P, Dawling S, Braithwaite RA, Masters J, Walkey R. Effect of activated charcoal on absorption of nortriptyline. Lancet 1977; 2: 1203–1205
  • Bosse GM, Barefoot JA, Pfeifer MP, Rodgers GC. Comparison of three methods of gut decontamination in tricyclic antidepressant overdose. J Emerg Med 1995; 13: 203–209
  • Hulten BA, Adams R, Askenasi R, Dallos V, Dawling S, Heath A, Volans G. Activated charcoal in tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Hum Toxicol 1988; 7: 307–310
  • Hedges J, Otten E, Schroeder T, Tasset J. Correlation of initial amitrpityline concentration reduction with activated-charcoal therapy in overdose patients. Am J Emerg Med 1987; 5: 48–51
  • Crome P, Adams R, Ali C, Dallos V, Dawling S. Activated charcoal in tricyclic antidepressant poisoning: pilot controlled clinical trial. Hum Toxicol 1983; 2: 205–209
  • Braithwaite RA, Crome P, Dawking S. The in vitro and in vivo evaluation of activated charcoal as an adsorbent of tricyclic antidepressants. [proceedings]. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1978; 7: 368
  • Dawling S, Crome P, Braithwaite R. Effect of delayed administration of activated charcoal on nortriptyline absorption. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1978; 14: 445–447
  • Chyka PA, Seger D, Krenzelok EP, Vale JA. American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. Position paper: Single-dose activated charcoal. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2005; 43: 61–87
  • Alaspaa AO, Kuisma MJ, Hoppu K, Neuvonen PJ. Out-of-hospital administration of activated charcoal by emergency medical services. Ann Emerg Med 2005; 45: 207–212
  • Lamminpaa A, Vilska J, Hoppu K. Medical charcoal for a child's poisoning at home: availability and success of administration in Finland. Hum Exp Toxicol 1993; 12: 29–32
  • Wax PM, Cobaugh DJ. Prehospital gastrointestinal decontamination of toxic ingestions: a missed opportunity. Am J Emerg Med 1998; 16: 114–116
  • Godambe SA, Mack JW, Chung DS, Lindeman R, Lillehei CW, Colin AA. Iatrogenic pleuropulmonary charcoal instillation in a teenager. Pediatr Pulmonol 2003; 35: 490–493
  • Roy TM, Ossorio MA, Cipolla LM, Fields CL, Snider HL, Anderson WH. Pulmonary complications after tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Chest 1989; 96: 852–856
  • Ross JP, Small TR, Lepage PA. Imipramine overdose complicated by toxic megacolon. Am Surg 1998; 64: 242–244
  • Wallace DE. Bowel ischemia in two patients following tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) overdose [abstract]. Vet Hum Toxicol 1989; 31: 377
  • Gomez HF, Brent JA, Munoz DCt, Mimmack RF, Ritvo J, Phillips S, McKinney P. Charcoal stercolith with intestinal perforation in a patient treated for amitriptyline ingestion. J Emerg Med 1994; 12: 57–60
  • Ray MJ, Radin DR, Condie JD, Halls JM, Padin DR. Charcoal bezoar. Small-bowel obstruction secondary to amitriptyline overdose therapy. Dig Dis Sci 1988; 33: 106–107
  • Knudsen K, Abrahamsson J. Epinephrine and sodium bicarbonate independently and additively increase survival in experimental amitriptyline poisoning. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 669–674
  • Albertson TE, Dawson A, de Latorre F, Hoffman RS, Hollander JE, Jaeger A, Kerns WR, 2nd, Martin TG, Ross MP. TOX-ACLS: Toxicologic-oriented advanced cardiac life support. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 37: S78–90
  • Brown TC. Sodium bicarbonate treatment for tricyclic antidepressant arrhythmias in children. Med J Aust 1976; 2: 380–382
  • Hoffman JR, Votey SR, Bayer M, Silver L. Effect of hypertonic sodium bicarbonate in the treatment of moderate-to-severe cyclic antidepressant overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1993; 11: 336–341
  • Bryan CK, Ludy JA, Hak SH, Roberts R, Marshall WR. Overdoses with tricyclic antidepressants--two case reports. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1976; 10: 380–384
  • Citak A, Soysal DD, Ucsel R, Karabocuoglu M, Uzel N. Efficacy of long duration resuscitation and magnesium sulphate treatment in amitriptyline poisoning. Eur J Emerg Med 2002; 9: 63–66
  • Fouron J, Chicoine R. ECG changes in fatal imipramine (Tofranil) intoxication. Pediatrics 1971; 48: 777–781
  • Givens T, Holloway M, Wason S. Pulmonary aspiration of activated charcoal: a complication of its misuse in overdose management. Pediatr Emerg Care 1992; 8: 137–140
  • Glauser J. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Cleve Clin J Med 2000; 67: 704–706, 709–713,717–709
  • Greenblatt DJ, Koch-Weser J, Shader RI. Multiple complications and death following protriptyline overdose. JAMA 1974; 229: 556–557
  • Guharoy SR. Adult respiratory distress syndrome associated with amitriptyline overdose. Vet Hum Toxicol 1994; 36: 316–317
  • Hodes D. Sodium bicarbonate and hyperventilation in treating an infant with severe overdose of tricyclic antidepressant. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984; 288: 1800–1801
  • Kingston ME. Hyperventilation in tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Crit Care Med 1979; 7: 550–551
  • Lin MH, Hung KL, Wang NK, Shen CT. Cardiotoxicity in imipramine intoxication: report of one case. Acta Paediatr Taiwan 2001; 42: 355–358
  • Manoguerra AS. Tricyclic antidepressants. Crit Care Q 1982; 4: 43–51
  • Mehta NJ, Alexandrou NA. Tricyclic antidepressant overdose and electrocardiographic changes. J Emerg Med 2000; 18: 463–464
  • Newton EH, Shih RD, Hoffman RS. Cyclic antidepressant overdose: a review of current management strategies. Am J Emerg Med 1994; 12: 376–379
  • Orr DA, Bramble MG. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning and prolonged external cardiac massage during asystole. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1981; 283: 1107–1108
  • Perel A, Cotev S. Imipramine (Tofranil) intoxication: a case report and review of management. Crit Care Med 1976; 4: 274–276
  • Ramsay ID. Survival after imipramine poisoning. Lancet 1967; 2: 1308–1309
  • Sandeman DJ, Alahakoon TI, Bentley SC. Tricyclic poisoning--successful management of ventricular fibrillation following massive overdose of imipramine. Anaesth Intensive Care 1997; 25: 542–545
  • Singh N, Singh HK, Khan IA. Serial electrocardiographic changes as a predictor of cardiovascular toxicity in acute tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Am J Ther 2002; 9: 75–79
  • Treitman P. Desipramine poisoning. JAMA 1972; 220(861)864
  • Hoegholm A, Clementsen P. Hypertonic sodium chloride in severe antidepressant overdosage. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1991; 29: 297–298
  • Lavoie FW, Gansert GG, Weiss RE. Value of initial ECG findings and plasma drug levels in cyclic antidepressant overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1990; 19: 696–700
  • Liebelt EL, Ulrich A, Francis PD, Woolf A. Serial electrocardiogram changes in acute tricyclic antidepressant overdoses. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 1721–1726
  • Peters RW, Buser GA, Kim HJ, Gold MR. Tricyclic overdose causing sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 1992; 70: 1226–1228
  • Rinder HM, Murphy JW, Higgins GL. Impact of unusual gastrointestinal problems on the treatment of tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1988; 17: 1079–1081
  • Shannon MW. Duration of QRS disturbances after severe tricyclic antidepressant intoxication. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1992; 30: 377–386
  • Southall DP, Kilpatrick SM. Imipramine poisoning: survival of a child after prolonged cardiac massage. Br Med J 1974; 4: 508
  • Teba L, Schiebel F, Dedhia HV, Lazzell VA. Beneficial effect of norepinephrine in the treatment of circulatory shock caused by tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1988; 6: 566–568
  • Tran TP, Panacek EA, Rhee KJ, Foulke GE. Response to dopamine vs. norepinephrine in tricyclic antidepressant-induced hypotension. Acad Emerg Med 1997; 4: 864–868
  • Rubenstein JS, Burg FD. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Drug Therapy 1989; 19: 126–128, 130
  • Langou RA, Van Dyke C, Tahan SR, Cohen LS. Cardiovascular manifestations of tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Am Heart J 1980; 100: 458–464
  • McDuffee AT, Tobias JD. Seizure after flumazenil administration in a pediatric patient. Pediatr Emerg Care 1995; 11: 186–187
  • Guidelines 2000 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. The American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation 2000; 102(suppl 8)1–370
  • Sunshine P, Yaffe SJ. Amitriptyline poisoning. Clinical and pathological findings in a fatal case. Am J Dis Child 1963; 106: 501–506
  • Halle MA, Collipp PJ. Amitriptyline hydrochloride poisoning. Unsuccessful treatment by peritoneal dialysis. N Y State J Med 1969; 69: 1434–1436
  • Rollin P, Antaki AJ. Poisoning due to tricyclic antidepressants in children and adolescents. Can Med Assoc J 1979; 120: 951–956
  • Fendrick GM. Amitriptyline poisoning. N Engl J Med 1962; 267: 1031–1032
  • Brown TC, Barker GA, Dunlop ME, Loughnan PM. The use of sodium bicarbonate in the treatment of tricyclic antidepressant-induced arrhythmias. Anaesth Intensive Care 1973; 1: 203–210
  • Chambers T, Kindley AD. Amitriptyline poisoning in childhood. Br Med J 1974; 3: 687
  • Noack CH. A death from overdosage of “Tofranil.”. Med J Aust 1960; 47(2)182
  • Wright SP. Usefulness of physostigmine in imipramine poisoning. A dramatic response in a child resistant to other therapy. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1976; 15: 1123–1128
  • Young GC, Morgan RT. Rapidity of response to the treatment of enuresis. Dev Med Child Neurol 1973; 15: 488–496
  • Arneson GA. A near fatal case of imipramine overdosage. Am J Psychiatry 1961; 117: 934–936
  • Ryan R, 3rd, Wians FH, Jr., Stigelman WH, Jr., Clark H, McCurdy F. Imipramine poisoning in a child: lack of efficacy of resin hemoperfusion. Pediatr Emerg Care 1985; 1: 201–204
  • Sueblinvong V, Wilson JF. Myocardial damage due to imipramine intoxication. J Pediatr 1969; 74: 475–478
  • Jacobzinger H, Raybin HW. Imipramine hydrochloride intoxication. N Y State J Med 1963; 63: 1394–1398
  • Fatteh A, Blanke R, Mann GT. Death from imipramine poisoning. J Forensic Sci 1968; 13: 124–128
  • Parkin JM, Fraser MS. Poisoning as a complication of enuresis. Dev Med Child Neurol 1972; 14: 727–730
  • Dingell JV, Sulser F, Gillette JR. Species differences in the metabolism of Imipramine and desmethylimipramine (DMI). J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1964; 143: 14–22
  • Thiemann HH, Otto L, Fritz H. Tödliche vergiftung durch imipramin. Dtsch Gesundheitsw 1967; 22: 1719–1722
  • Prout BJ, Young J, Goddard P. Imipramine poisoning in childhood and suggested treatment. Br Med J 1965; 5440: 972
  • Penny R. Imipramine hydrochloride poisoning in childhood. Am J Dis Child 1968; 116: 181–186
  • Garrison HF, Jr., Moffitt EM. Imipramine hydrochloride intoxication. JAMA 1962; 179: 456–458
  • Brown KG, McMichen HU, Briggs DS. Tachyarrhythmia in severe imipramine overdose controlled by practolol. Arch Dis Child 1972; 47: 104–106
  • Sacks MH, Bonforte RJ, Laser RP, Dimich I. Cardiovascular complications of imipramine intoxication. JAMA 1968; 205: 588–590
  • Côté M, Elias G. Le propranolol dans les arythmes cardiaques par intoxication à l'imipramine (Tofranil) chez l'enfant. Union Med Can 1974; 103: 1223–1225
  • Burks JS, Walker JE, Rumack BH, Ott JE. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Reversal of coma, choreoathetosis, and myoclonus by physostigmine. JAMA 1974; 230: 1405–1407
  • Sesso AM, Snyder RC, Schott CE. Propranolol in imipramine poisoning. Am J Dis Child 1973; 126: 847–849
  • Alajem N, Albagli C. Severe imipramine poisoning in an infant. Am J Dis Child 1962; 103: 702–705
  • Braun L, Brodehl J, Fichsel H, Kallfelz C. Uber mipraminintoxikation im kindesalter. Med Klin 1965; 60: 1737–1742
  • Connelly JF, Venables AW. A case of poisoning with “Tofranil”. Med J Aust 1961; 1: 109
  • Oliver JS, Smith H. A case of fatal imipramine poisoning in an infant. Med Sci Law 1977; 17: 193–194
  • Bickel MH, Brochon R, Friolet B, Herrmann B, Stofer AR. Clinical and biochemical results of a fatal case of desipramine intoxication. Psychopharmacologia 1967; 10: 431–436
  • Yang KL, Dantzker DR. Reversible brain death. A manifestation of amitriptyline overdose. Chest 1991; 99: 1037–1038
  • Lindstrom FD, Flodmark O, Gustafsson B. Respiratory distress syndrome and thrombotic, non-bacterial endocarditis after amitriptyline overdose. Acta Med Scand 1977; 202: 203–212
  • Bessen HA, Niemann JT. Improvement of cardiac conduction after hyperventilation in tricyclic antidepressant overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1985; 23: 537–546
  • Manoguerra AS, Steiner RW. Prolonged neuromuscular blockade after administration of physostigmine and succinylcholine. Clin Toxicol 1981; 18: 803–805
  • Gard H, Knapp D, Hanenson I, Walle T, Gaffney T. Studies on the disposition of amitriptyline and other tricyclic antidepressant drugs in man as it relates to the management of the overdosed patient. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 1973; 7: 95–105
  • Bolognesi R, Tsialtas D, Vasini P, Conti M, Manca C. Abnormal ventricular repolarization mimicking myocardial infarction after heterocyclic antidepressant overdose. Am J Cardiol 1997; 79: 242–245
  • Flomenbaum N, Price D. Recognition and management of antidepressant overdoses: tricyclics and trazodone. Neuropsychobiology 1986; 15: 46–51
  • Czech K, Francesconi M, Haimböck E, Hruby K. Die akute vergiftung durch trizyklische antidepressiva und ihre therapie mit physostigminsalizylat. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1977; 89: 265–269
  • Borden EC, Rostand SG. Recovery from massive amitriptyline overdosage. Lancet 1968; 1: 1256
  • Oreopoulos DG, Lal S. Recovery from massive amitriptyline overdosage. Lancet 1968; 2: 221
  • LeWitt PA, Forno LS. Peripheral neuropathy following amitriptyline overdose. Muscle Nerve 1985; 8: 723–724
  • Forbes G, Pollock Weir W, Smith H, Bogan J. Amitriptyline poisoning. J Forensic Sci Soc 1965; 5: 183–187
  • Hong WK, Mauer P, Hochman R, Caslowitz JG, Paraskos JA. Amitriptyline cardiotoxicity. Chest 1974; 66: 304–306
  • Ward FG, Tin-Myint B. Amitriptyline poisoning. Lancet 1965; 2: 910
  • Dequin PF, Lanotte R, Furet Y, Legras A, Perrotin D. Association bicarbonate molaire et adrénaline au cours d'une intoxication tricyclique grave chez une femme gastrectomisée. Presse Med 1994; 23: 540–541
  • Stark JE, Bethune DW. Amitriptyline poisoning. Lancet 1965; 2: 390
  • Sunshine I, Baeumler J. A fatal case of poisoning with amitriptyline. Nature 1963; 199: 1103–1104
  • Prenzel E, Krohs G. Intoxikationen mit trizyklischen antidepressiva und phenothiazinen sowie deren therapie mit physostigmin. Anaesthesiol Reanim 1986; 11: 227–234
  • Walsh DM. Cyclic antidepressant overdose in children: a proposed treatment protocol. Pediatr Emerg Care 1986; 2: 28–35
  • Lloyd TW, Hart DR. Amitriptyline poisoning. Lancet 1965; 2: 544
  • Jeong YG, Caccamo LP. Amitriptyline poisoning causing left bundle branch block. Ohio State Med J 1976; 72: 217–219
  • Mehrotra TN. Amitriptyline poisoning. Lancet 1965; 2: 544–545
  • Davies DM, Allaye R. Amitriptyline poisoning. Lancet 1963; 2: 543
  • Leys D, Pasquier F, Lamblin MD, Dubois F, Petit H. Acute polyradiculoneuropathy after amitriptyline overdose. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987; 294: 608
  • Ordiway MV. Treating tricyclic overdose with physostigmine. Am J Psychiatry 1978; 135: 1114
  • Hurst HE, Jarboe CH. Clinical findings, elimination pharmacokinetics, and tissue drug concentrations following a fatal amitriptyline intoxication. Clin Toxicol 1981; 18: 119–125
  • Babb SV, Dunlop SR. Case report of sudden and unexpected death after tricyclic overdose. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 275–276
  • Roberge RJ, Krenzelok EP. Prolonged coma and loss of brainstem reflexes following amitriptyline overdose. Vet Hum Toxicol 2001; 43: 42–44
  • Knudsen K, Abrahamsson J. Magnesium sulphate in the treatment of ventricular fibrillation in amitriptyline poisoning. Eur Heart J 1997; 18: 881–882
  • Nicholls HK. Amitriptyline overdose and the ECG: report of a case. NZ Med J 1965; 64: 651–652
  • Holinger PC, Klawans HL. Reversal of tricyclic-overdosage-induced central anticholinergic syndrome by physostigmine. Am J Psychiatry 1976; 133: 1018–1023
  • Bain DJ, Turner T. Imipramine poisoning. Arch Dis Child 1971; 46: 887
  • Bailey RR, Sharman JR, O'Rourke J, Buttimore AL. Haemodialysis and forced diuresis for tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. Br Med J 1974; 4: 230–231
  • Johnson DA, Knepp IG, Whelan TV. Toxic tricyclic antidepressant levels and the ECG. JAMA 1983; 250: 1027
  • Harthorne JW, Marcus AM, Kaye M. Management of massive imipramine overdosage with mannitol and artificial dialysis. N Engl J Med 1963; 268: 33–36
  • Rasmussen J. Amitriptyline and imipramine poisoning [letter]. Lancet 1965; 2: 850–851
  • Rushnak MJ, McGovern DP. Reversal of imipramine cardiotoxicity with physostigmine. J Med Soc N J 1977; 74: 155–157
  • Reed K, McKim HR. ECG changes in pure impramine overdose as function of plasma level. Can Psychiatr Assoc J 1978; 23: 573–577
  • Freimuth HC. Poisoning by new drugs – report of a fatality due to suicidal ingestion of tofranil. J Forensic Sci 1961; 6: 68–75
  • Lancaster NP, Foster AR. Suicidal attempt by imipramine overdosage. Br Med J 1959; 5164: 1458
  • Dubuc M, Friborg J, Houde M, Laplante L. Traitement de l'intoxication médicamenteuse aux agents antidépresseurs tricycliques: pour ou contre l'utilisation de la physostigmine. Union Med Can 1981; 110: 555–557
  • Dolara P, Franconi F. Hypertonic sodium chloride and lidocaine in a case of imipramine intoxication. Clin Toxicol 1977; 10: 395–398
  • Herson VC, Schmitt BD, Rumack BH. Magical thinking and imipramine poisoning in two school-age children. JAMA 1979; 241: 1926–1927
  • Denton S. “Tofranil” (imipramine) in toxicological analysis. Analyst 1962; 87: 234–236
  • Edwards J. Fatal imipramine overdosage. Med J Aust 1966; 1: 839–840
  • Louis C, Olbing H, Bohlmann HG, Philippou A, Heimsoth V. Zur behandlung der imipramin-vergiftung beim kind. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1970; 95: 2078–2082
  • Lee FI. Imipramine overdosage--report of a fatal case. Br Med J 1961; 5222: 338–339
  • Hoffman JR, McElroy CR. Bicarbonate therapy for dysrhythmia and hypotension in tricyclic antidepressant overdose. West J Med 1981; 134: 60–64
  • Pearson JD, Jones ES, Gabbe DM. Cardiac arrest and arrhythmias due to self-poisoning with imipramine. Anaesthesia 1969; 24: 69–71
  • Bismuth C, Pontal PG, Baud F, Galliot M, Elkhouly M. Prolonged high plasma imipramine levels after acute intoxication. Vet Hum Toxicol 1982; 24: 69–70
  • Kirchmair H, Goldberg K. Suicidver such mit Tofranil in kombination mit schlafmitteln. Med Libre 1960; 55: 1474–1475
  • Bindler RM, Howry LB. Prentice Hall Pediatric Drug Guide. Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 2005
  • Physicians' Desk Reference: PDR60th. Thomson Healthcare, Montvale, NJ 2006
  • Takemoto CK, Hodding JH, Kraus DM. Pediatric Dosage Handbook12th. Lexi-Comp, Hudson, OH 2005

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.