Scorpion envenomation: a deadly illness requiring an effective therapy

References

• Abbas, A. K., Lichtman, A.H.H., and Pillai, S., 2014. Cellular and molecular immunology. 8th ed., Elsevier. Philadelphia, PA.
   Google Scholar
• Abbas, N., et al. 2011. Characterization of three “birtoxin-like” toxins from the Androctonus amoreuxi scorpion venom. Peptides, 32 (5), 911–919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abderrazek, R.B., et al. 2009. Identification of potent nanobodies to neutralize the most poisonous polypeptide from scorpion venom. The biochemical journal, 424 (2), 263–272.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Abib, L. and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2003. Effect of gamma irradiation on toxicity and immunogenicity of Androctonus australis hector venom. Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 81 (12), 1118–1124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aboumaâd, B., et al. 2014. Clinical comparison of scorpion envenomation by Androctonus mauritanicus and Buthus occitanus in children. Toxicon, 90, 337–343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abroug, F., et al. 1991. Cardiac dysfunction and pulmonary edema following scorpion envenomation. Chest, 100 (4), 1057–1059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abroug, F., et al. 1999. Serotherapy in scorpion envenomation: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet, 354 (9182), 906–909.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abroug, F., et al. 2015. Scorpion-related cardiomyopathy: clinical characteristics, pathophysiology, and treatment. Clinical toxicology, 53 (6), 511–518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abroug, F., et al. 2020. Scorpion envenomation: state of the art. Intensive Care Medicine, 46 (3), 401–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adi-Bessalem, S., Hammoudi-Triki, D., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2008. Pathophysiological effects of Androctonus australis hector scorpion venom: tissue damages and inflammatory response. Experimental and toxicologic pathology: official journal of the Gesellschaft Fur Toxikologische Pathologie, 60 (4–5), 373–380.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ait-Lounis, A. and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2015. TNF-alpha modulates adipose macrophage polarization to M1 phenotype in response to scorpion venom. Inflammation research, 64 (11), 929–936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Asmari, A., et al. 2017. Saudi medicinal plants for the treatment of scorpion sting envenomation. Saudi journal of biological sciences, 24 (6), 1204–1211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez, A., et al. 2013. IgY antibodies anti-Tityus caripitensis venom: purification and neutralization efficacy. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 74, 208–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez, A., et al. 2015. Poultry igy alternatives to antivenom production. In: Scorpion venoms. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 161–178.
   Google Scholar
• Amaro, I., et al. 2011. Isolation and characterization of a human antibody fragment specific for Ts1 toxin from Tityus serrulatus scorpion. Immunology letters, 139 (1–2), 73–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, A.S., et al. 2010. Brazilian IgY-Bothrops antivenom: studies on the development of a process in chicken egg yolk. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 55 (4), 739–744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayari-Riabi, S., et al. 2016. Venom conjugated polylactide applied as biocompatible material for passive and active immunotherapy against scorpion envenomation. Vaccine, 34 (15), 1810–1815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachsais, N., Boussag-Abib, L., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2017. Safety and efficiency of active immunization with detoxified antigen against scorpion venom: side effect evaluation. Inflammation research, 66 (9), 765–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahloul, M., et al. 2004. Evidence of myocardial ischaemia in severe scorpion envenomation. Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy study. Intensive care medicine, 30 (3), 461–467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahloul, M., et al. 2013. Pulmonary edema following scorpion envenomation: mechanisms, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. International journal of cardiology, 162 (2), 86–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahraoui, E., et al. 1988. Monoclonal antibodies to scorpion toxins. Characterization and molecular mechanisms of neutralization. Journal of immunology, 141 (1), 214–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bawaskar, H.S. and Bawaskar, P.H., 2011. Efficacy and safety of scorpion antivenom plus prazosin compared with prazosin alone for venomous scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) sting: randomised open label clinical trial. BMJ, 342 (3), c7136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bechis, G., et al. 1984. Amino acid sequence of toxin VII, A β-toxin from the venom of the scorpton Tityus serrulatus. Biochemical and biophysical research communications, 122 (3), 1146–1153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekkari, N., Martin-Eauclaire, M.F., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2015. Complement system and immunological mediators: their involvements in the induced inflammatory process by Androctonus australis hector venom and its toxic components. Experimental and toxicologic pathology: official journal of the Gesellschaft Fur Toxikologische Pathologie, 67 (7–8), 389–397.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borges, A., et al. 2006. Diversity of long-chain toxins in Tityus zulianus and Tityus discrepans venoms (Scorpiones, Buthidae): molecular, immunological, and mass spectral analyses. Comparative biochemistry and physiology. Toxicology & pharmacology, 142 (3–4), 240–252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouaziz, M., et al. 2006. Factors associated with pulmonary edema in severe scorpion sting patients - A multivariate analysis of 428 cases. Clinical toxicology, 44 (3), 293–300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouaziz, M., et al. 2008. Epidemiological, clinical characteristics and outcome of severe scorpion envenomation in South Tunisia: multivariate analysis of 951 cases. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 52 (8), 918–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boucherit, H., Benabdeli, K., and Benaradj, A., 2017. Contribution to the phytotherapy against scorpion sting envenomation in the Naama region (Algeria). Lazaroa, 38 (1), 75–82.
   Google Scholar
• Boyer, L., et al. 2013. Safety of intravenous equine F(ab’)2: insights following clinical trials involving 1534 recipients of scorpion antivenom. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 76, 386–393. Elsevier Ltd,
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyer, L.V., et al. 2009. Antivenom for critically ill children with neurotoxicity from scorpion stings. The New England journal of medicine, 360 (20), 2090–2098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butt, M.A., et al. 2015. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of snake and scorpion bite in Northern Pakistan. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 168, 164–181. Elsevier Ireland Ltd,
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll, S.B., et al. 1992. Comparison of the purity and efficacy of affinity purified avian antivenoms with commercial equine crotalid antivenoms. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 30 (9), 1017–1025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaïr-Yousfi, I., Laraba-Djebari, F., and Hammoudi-Triki, D., 2015. Androctonus australis hector venom contributes to the interaction between neuropeptides and mast cells in pulmonary hyperresponsiveness. International immunopharmacology, 25 (1), 19–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakroun-Walha, O., et al. 2018. Update on the epidemiology of scorpion envenomation in the south of Tunisia. Wilderness & environmental medicine, 29 (1), 29–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chavez-Olortegui, C., et al. 1991. In vivo protection against scorpion toxins by liposomal immunization. Vaccine, 9 (12), 907–910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chavez-Olortegui, C., et al. 1998. ELISA for the detection of venom antigens in experimental and clinical envenoming by Loxosceles intermedia spiders. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 36 (4), 563–569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chippaux, J.-P., and Goyffon, M., 2008. Epidemiology of scorpionism: a global appraisal. Acta Tropica, 107 (2), 71–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clot-Faybesse, O., et al. 1999. Monoclonal antibodies against the Androctonus australis hector scorpion neurotoxin I: characterisation and use for venom neutralisation. FEBS letters, 458 (3), 313–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correa, M. et al. 1997. Biochemical and histopathological alterations induced in rats by Tityus serrulatus scorpion venom and its major neurotoxin tityustoxin-I. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology. 35 (7), 1053–1067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couraud, F., et al. 1982. Two types of scorpion toxin receptor sites, one related to the activation, the other to the inactivation of the action potential sodium channel. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 20 (1), 9–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crest, M., et al. 1992. Kaliotoxin, a novel peptidyl inhibitor of neuronal BK-type Ca2+-activated K + channels characterized from Androctonus mauretanicus mauretanicus venom. Journal of biological chemistry, 267 (3), 1640–1647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruse, J.M., et al. 1999. Types I, II, III, and IV Hypersensitivity. In: Atlas of immunology. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 225–245.
   Google Scholar
• D’suze, G. et al. 2003. Relationship between plasmatic levels of various cytokines, tumour necrosis factor, enzymes, glucose and venom concentration following Tityus scorpion sting. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 41 (3), 367–375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daachi, F., et al. 2020. Immune-toxicity effects of scorpion venom on the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis during rest and activity phases in a rodent model. Comparative biochemistry and physiology. Toxicology & pharmacology, 235, 108787.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devaux, C., et al. 2001. Construction and functional evaluation of a single-chain antibody fragment that neutralizes toxin AahI from the venom of the scorpion Androctonus australis hector. European journal of biochemistry, 268 (3), 694–702.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elatrous, S., et al. 1999. Dobutamine in severe scorpion envenomation: effects on standard hemodynamics, right ventricular performance, and tissue oxygenation. Chest, 116 (3), 748–753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elatrous, S., et al. 2015. Study of severe scorpion envenoming following subcutaneous venom injection into dogs: hemodynamic and concentration/effect analysis. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 104, 1–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elhag, D.E. and Mahmoud, R.A.K., 2017. Efficacy and stability of scorpion antivenom: at different storage conditions. Pharmaceutica analytica acta, 8 (12), 570.
   Google Scholar
• Erridge, A. and Greer, J., 2002. Partnerships and public procurement: building social capital through supply relations. Public Administration, 80 (3), 503–522.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonseca, S.G., et al. 1997. Induction of neutralizing antibodies in mice immunized with scorpion toxins detoxified by liposomal entrapment. Brazilian journal of medical and biological research, 30 (7), 883–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freire-Maia, L., Campos, J.A., and Amaral, C.F.S., 1994. Approaches to the treatment of scorpion envenoming. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 32 (9), 1009–1014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freitas, T.V., et al. 1989. Use of liposomes for protective immunisation against Crotalus durissus (tropical rattlesnake) venom. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 27 (3), 341–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuhara, Y. and Dellalibera-Joviliano, R., 2004. The kinin system in the envenomation caused by the Tityus serrulatus scorpion sting. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 196 (3), 390–395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuhara, Y.D.M., et al. 2003. Increased plasma levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and TNF-α in patients moderately or severely envenomed by Tityus serrulatus scorpion sting. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 41 (1), 49–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghalim, N. et al., 2000. Scorpion envenomation and serotherapy in Morocco. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene. 62 (2), 277–283.
   Google Scholar
• Gopalakrishnakone, P., et al. 2015. Scorpion venoms. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Goyffon, M., 2002. Le scorpionisme. Revue Française Des Laboratoires, 2002 (342), 41–48.
   Google Scholar
• Gueron, M., et al. 1980. Hemodynamic and myocardial consequences of scorpion venom. The American journal of cardiology, 45 (5), 979–986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gueron, M., Ilia, R., and Sofer, S., 1992. The cardiovascular system after scorpion envenomation. A review. Journal of toxicology: clinical, 30 (2), 245–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurib-Fakim, A., 2006. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Molecular aspects of medicine, 27 (1), 1–93.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gutiérrez, J.M., et al. 2017. Preclinical evaluation of the efficacy of antivenoms for snakebite envenoming: state-of-the-art and challenges ahead. Toxins, 9 (5), 163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammoudi-Triki, D., et al. 2004. Epidemiological data, clinical admission gradation and biological quantification by ELISA of scorpion envenomations in Algeria: effect of immunotherapy. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 98 (4), 240–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammoudi-Triki, D., et al. 2007. Toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic analyses of Androctonus australis hector venom in rats: optimization of antivenom therapy. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 218 (3), 205–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath, W. and Carbone, F., 2013. The skin-resident and migratory immune system in steady state and memory: innate lymphocytes, dendritic cells and T cells. Nature immunology, 14 (10), 978–985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellal, H., et al. 2012. Epidemiological data on scorpion envenomation in Algeria. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique, 105 (3), 189–193.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hmila, I., et al. 2010. A bispecific nanobody to provide full protection against lethal scorpion envenoming. FASEB journal: official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 24 (9), 3479–3489.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hmila, I., et al. 2012. Pre-clinical studies of toxin-specific nanobodies: evidence of in vivo efficacy to prevent fatal disturbances provoked by scorpion envenoming. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 264 (2), 222–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutt, M.J. and Houghton, P.J., 1998. A survey from the literature of plants used to treat scorpion stings. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 60 (2), 97–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isbister, G.K. and Bawaskar, H.S., 2014. Scorpion envenomation. The New England journal of medicine, 371 (5), 457–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ismail, M., 1995. The scorpion envenoming syndrome. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 33 (7), 825–858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabrine, M. and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2014. Immunomodulatory and protective properties of tacrolimus in experimental scorpion envenomation. International journal of immunopathology and pharmacology, 27 (1), 69–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaddache, A., et al. 2017. Switch of steady-state to an accelerated granulopoiesis in response to Androctonus australis hector venom. Inflammation, 40 (3), 871–883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khattabi, A., et al. 2011. Classification of clinical consequences of scorpion stings: consensus development. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 105 (7), 364–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khemili, D., Laraba-Djebari, F., and Hammoudi-Triki, D., 2020. Involvement of toll-like receptor 4 in neutrophil-mediated inflammation, oxidative stress and tissue damage induced by scorpion venom. Inflammation, 43 (1), 155–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopeyan, C., et al. 1990. Primary structure of scorpion anti-insect toxins isolated from the venom of Leiurus quinquestriatus quinquestriatus. FEBS letters, 261 (2), 423–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krifi, M. et al., 1998. Development of an ELISA for the detection of scorpion venoms in sera of humans envenomed by Androctonus australis garzonii (Aag) and Buthus occitanus. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology. 36 (6), 887–900.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulkarni, A.G., 2001. Prazosin therapy and scorpion envenomation. The journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 48 (12), 1175–1180.
   Google Scholar
• Lamraoui, A., Adi-Bessalem, S., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2015. Immunopathologic effects of scorpion venom on hepato-renal tissues: involvement of lipid derived inflammatory mediators. Experimental and molecular pathology, 99 (2), 286–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laraba-Djebari, F., et al. 1994. The kaliotoxin family enlarged. Purification, characterization, and precursor nucleotide sequence of KTX2 from Androctonus australis venom. Journal of biological chemistry, 269 (52), 32835–32843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laraba-Djebari, F., Adi-Bessalem, S., and Hammoudi-Triki, D., 2015. Scorpion venoms: pathogenesis and biotherapies. In: Scorpion venoms. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 63–85.
   Google Scholar
• Laraba-Djebari, F., and Hammoudi-Triki, D., 1999. Purification Et Caracterisation Des Fragments F(Ab’)2 a Partir D’Un Serum Anti-Scorpionique. Archives de l'institut Pasteur d'Algérie, 63, 3–20.
   Google Scholar
• Laraba-Djebari, F., and Mohamed, K., 2014. Phytotherapy as new approach to treat scorpion envenomation: experimental study. International journal of pharmaceutical sciences and research, 5 (5), 1682–1692.
   Google Scholar
• Lila, B.-A. and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2011. Enhanced immune sera and vaccine: safe approach to treat scorpion envenoming. Vaccine, 29 (48), 8951–8959.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansour, N.M., et al. 2011. Protective role of Ambrosia maritima plant extract against alterations induced by Leiurus quinquestriatus scorpion venom on skeletal muscles and intestinal tissues of rats. Egyptian journal of natural toxins, 8, 81–103.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, M.F., et al. 1987. Use of high performance liquid chromatography to demonstrate quantitative variation in components of venom from the scorpion Androctonus australis hector. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 25 (5), 569–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, M.F. and Rochat, H., 1986. Large scale purification of toxins from the venom of the scorpion Androctonus australis Hector. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 24 (11–12), 1131–1139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin-Eauclaire, M.-F., et al. 2005. New “birtoxin analogs” from Androctonus australis venom. Biochemical and biophysical research communications, 333 (2), 524–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin-Eauclaire, M.-F., et al. 2019. Serotherapy against voltage-gated sodium channel-targeting αtoxins from Androctonus scorpion venom. Toxins, 11 (2), 63.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medjadba, W., Martin-Eauclaire, M.F., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2016. Involvement of Kallikrein-Kinin system on cardiopulmonary alterations and inflammatory response induced by purified Aah I toxin from scorpion venom. Inflammation, 39 (1), 290–302. Springer New York LLC,
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meki, A. and El-Dean, Z., 1998. Serum interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, nitric oxide and α 1-antitrypsin in scorpion envenomed children. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 36 (12), 1851–1859.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miranda, F. and Lissitzky, S., 1961. Scorpamins: the toxic proteins of scorpion venoms. Nature, 190 (4774), 443–444.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morais, V., 2018. Antivenom therapy: efficacy of premedication for the prevention of adverse reactions. Journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases, 24 (1), 1–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morais, V.M. and Massaldi, H., 2009. Snake antivenoms: adverse reactions and production technology. Journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases, 15 (1), 2–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mousli, M., et al. 1999. A recombinant single-chain antibody fragment that neutralizes toxin II from the venom of the scorpion Androctonus australis hector. FEBS letters, 442 (2–3), 183–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nait Mohamed, F.A. and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2016. Development and characterization of a new carrier for vaccine delivery based on calcium-alginate nanoparticles: safe immunoprotective approach against scorpion envenoming. Vaccine, 34 (24), 2692–2699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakib, I., Martin-Eauclaire, M.F., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2016. Involvement of cholinergic and adrenergic receptors in pathogenesis and inflammatory response induced by alpha-neurotoxin bot III of scorpion venom. Inflammation, 39 (5), 1670–1680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natu, V.S., 2010. Efficacy of anti-scorpion venom serum over prazosin in the management of severe scorpion envenomation. Journal of postgraduate medicine, 56 (4), 275–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouira, S., et al. 1995. Right ventricular dysfunction following severe scorpion envenomation. Chest, 108 (3), 682–687.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouira, S., et al. 2005. Neurohormonal activation in severe scorpion envenomation: correlation with hemodynamics and circulating toxin. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 208 (2), 111–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouri, A. and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2015. Enhancement of long-lasting immunoprotective effect against Androctonus australis hector envenomation using safe antigens: comparative role of MF59 and Alum adjuvants. Vaccine, 33 (43), 5756–5763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouri, A., Nait Mohamed, F.A., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2018. New and safe formulation for scorpion immunotherapy: comparative study between saponin and FCA adjuvants associated to attenuated venom. Vaccine, 36 (13), 1720–1727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pandi, K., et al. 2014. Efficacy of scorpion antivenom plus prazosin versus prazosin alone for Mesobuthus tamulus scorpion sting envenomation in children: a randomised controlled trial. Archives of disease in childhood, 99 (6), 575–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pépin-Covatta, S., et al. 1996. Immunoreactivity and pharmacokinetics of horse anti-scorpion venom F(ab’)2-scorpion venom interactions. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 141 (1), 272–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petricevich, V.L., 2010. Scorpion venom and the inflammatory response. Mediators of inflammation, 2010, 1–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petricevich, V.L., et al. 2007. Toxin gamma from Tityus serrulatus scorpion venom plays an essential role in immunomodulation of macrophages. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 50 (5), 666–675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picman, A.K., 1986. Biological activities of sesquiterpene lactones. Biochemical systematics and ecology, 14 (3), 255–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirquet, C.V., 1905. Die Serumkrankheit. Universitäts-Kinder-Klinik in Wien, 1, 1–144.
   Google Scholar
• Pla, D., Rodríguez, Y., and Calvete, J.J., 2017. Third generation antivenomics: pushing the limits of the in vitro preclinical assessment of antivenoms. Toxins, 9 (5), 315–316.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Possani, L.D., de Castro, J.F., and Juliá, J.Z., 1981. Detoxification with glutaraldehyde of purified scorpion (Centruroides noxius Hoffmann) venom. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 19 (2), 323–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raouraoua-Boukari, R., et al. 2012. Immunomodulation of the inflammatory response induced by Androctonus australis hector neurotoxins: biomarker interactions. Neuroimmunomodulation, 19 (2), 103–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rebahi, H., et al. 2015. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in a child stung by Androctonus mauretanicus scorpion. Journal of stroke and cerebrovascular diseases: the official journal of National Stroke Association, 24 (6), e129–e132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rebbouh, F., Martin-Eauclaire, M.F., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2020. Chitosan nanoparticles as a delivery platform for neurotoxin II from Androctonus australis hector scorpion venom: assessment of toxicity and immunogenicity. Acta Tropica, 205, 105353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revelo, M.P., et al. 1996. Body distribution of Tityus serrulatus scorpion venom in mice and effects of scorpion antivenom. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 34 (10), 1119–1125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riaño-Umbarila, L., et al. 2005. A strategy for the generation of specific human antibodies by directed evolution and phage display. An example of a single-chain antibody fragment that neutralizes a major component of scorpion venom. The FEBS journal, 272 (10), 2591–2601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riaño-Umbarila, L., et al. 2019. Generation of a broadly cross-neutralizing antibody fragment against several Mexican scorpion venoms. Toxins, 11 (1), 32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodrigo, C. and Gnanathasan, A., 2017. Management of scorpion envenoming: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Systematic reviews, 6 (1), 74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rodríguez, E.R.R., et al. 2015. Recombinant neutralizing antibodies, a new generation of antivenoms. In: Scorpion Venoms. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 139–159.
   Google Scholar
• Romey, G., et al. 1975. Scorpion neurotoxin – a presynaptic toxin which affects both Na + and K + channels in axons. Biochemical and biophysical research communications, 64 (1), 115–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saidi, H., et al. 2013. Effects of atropine and propranolol on lung inflammation in experimental envenomation: comparison of two Buthidae venoms. Journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases, 19 (1), 8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sami-Merah, S., et al. 2008. Combination of two antibody fragments F(ab’)(2)/Fab: an alternative for scorpion envenoming treatment. International immunopharmacology, 8 (10), 1386–1394.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santhanakrishnan, B.R. and Balagopal Raju, V., 1974. Management of scorpion sting in children. The journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 77 (6), 133–135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schade, R., et al. 1996. The production of avian (egg yolk) antibodies: IgY. The report and recommendations of ECVAM workshop 21. Alternatives to laboratory animals, 24 (6), 925–934.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schade, R., et al. 2005. Chicken egg yolk antibodies (IgY-technology): a review of progress in production and use in research and human and veterinary medicine. Alternatives to laboratory animals, 33 (2), 129–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedziwy, L., Thomas, M., and Shillingford, J., 1968. Some observations on haematocrit changes in patients with acute myocardial infarction. British heart journal, 30 (3), 344–349.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sergent, E., 1939. Anti-scorpionic serotherapy. Archives de l’Institut Pasteur D’Algerie, 17 (3), 412–420.
   Google Scholar
• Sifi, A., Adi-Bessalem, S., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2018. Development of a new approach of immunotherapy against scorpion envenoming: avian IgYs an alternative to equine IgGs. International immunopharmacology, 61, 256–265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sifi, N., Martin-Eauclaire, M., and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2016. K + channel blocker-induced neuroinflammatory response and neurological disorders: immunomodulatory effects of astaxanthin. Inflammation research: official journal of the European Histamine Research Society, 65 (8), 623–634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, D.M., Simon, J.K., and Baker, J.R., Jr., 2013. Applications of nanotechnology for immunology. Nature reviews immunology, 13, 592–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soualmia, H., Eurin, J., and Djeridane, Y., 2009. Scorpion toxin of Androctonus australis garzonii induces neuropeptide Y release via bradykinin stimulation in rat atria and kidneys. Peptides, 30 (8), 1553–1556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soulaymani Bencheikh, R., et al. 2007. Scorpion stings in one province of Morocco: epidemiological, clinical and prognosis aspects. Journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases, 13 (2), 462–471.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srairi-Abid, N., et al. 2008. Immunological characterization of a non-toxic peptide conferring protection against the toxic fraction (AahG50) of the Androctonus australis hector venom. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 51 (3), 353–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taibi-Djennah, Z. and Laraba-Djebari, F., 2015. Effect of cytokine antibodies in the immunomodulation of inflammatory response and metabolic disorders induced by scorpion venom. International immunopharmacology, 27 (1), 122–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thalley, B.S. and Carroll, S.B., 1990. Rattlesnake and scorpion antivenoms from the egg yolks of immunized hens. Biotechnology, 8 (10), 934–938.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Todd, C., 1909. An anti-serum for scorpion venom. The journal of hygiene, 9 (1), 69–85.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trinh, K.X. and Trinh, L.X., 2005. The production of bungarus Candidus antivenom from horses immunized with venom & it’s application for the treatment of snake bite patients in Vietnam. Therapeutic drug monitoring, 27 (2), 230.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uawonggul, N., et al. 2006. Screening of plants acting against Heterometrus laoticus scorpion venom activity on fibroblast cell lysis. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 103 (2), 201–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verma, R., Boleti, E., and George, A., 1998. Antibody engineering: Comparison of bacterial, yeast, insect and mammalian expression systems. Journal of immunological methods, 216 (1–2), 165–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Y., et al. 2014. Androcin, a novel type of cysteine-rich venom peptide from Androctonus bicolor, induces akinesia and anxiety-like symptoms in mice. IUBMB life, 66 (4), 277–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zerrouk, H., et al. 1991. Analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography of Androctonus mauretanicus mauretanicus (black scorpion) venom. Toxicon: official journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 29 (8), 951–960.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar