The effects of environmental lead on teeth and bone status and the mechanisms of these effects, animal and human evidence, a review

References

• Abdollahi, M., et al., 2003. Protection by sildenafil and theophylline of lead acetate-induced oxidative stress in rat submandibular gland and saliva. Human & experimental toxicology, 22 (11), 587–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahamed, M. and Siddiqui, M.K., 2007. Low level lead exposure and oxidative stress: current opinions. Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry, 383 (1–2), 57–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Naimi, T., Edmonds, M.I., and Fremlin, J.H., 1980. The distribution of lead in human teeth, using charged particle activation analysis. Physics in medicine and biology, 25 (4), 719–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alomary, A., et al., 2013. Levels of lead, cadmium, copper, iron, and zinc in deciduous teeth of children living in Irbid, Jordan by ICP-OES: some factors affecting their concentrations. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 185 (4), 3283–3295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altshuller, L.F., et al., 1962. Deciduous teeth as an index of body burden of lead. The journal of pediatrics, 60, 224–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, R.J., 1966. Dental caries prevalence in relation to trace elements. British dental journal, 120 (6), 271–275.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson, R.J., Davies, B.E., and James, P.M., 1976. Dental caries prevalence in a heavy metal contaminated area of the West of England. British dental journal, 141 (10), 311–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anttila, A. and Anttila, A., 1987. Trace-element content in the enamel surface and in whole enamel of deciduous incisors by proton-induced X-ray emission of children from rural and urban Finnish areas. Archives of oral biology, 32 (10), 713–717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anttila, A., et al., 1995. Excess lung cancer among workers exposed to lead. Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health, 21 (6), 460–469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton, J., 1991. The effect of lead acetate on dentine formation in the rat. Archives of oral biology, 36 (5), 377–382.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arora, M., et al., 2009. Cumulative lead exposure and tooth loss in men: the normative aging study. Environmental health perspectives, 117 (10), 1531–1534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baranowska, I., et al., 2004. X-ray fluorescence spectrometry in multielemental analysis of hair and teeth. Polish journal of environmental studies, 13 (6), 639–646.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbosa, F., Jr., et al., 2005. A critical review of biomarkers used for monitoring human exposure to lead: advantages, limitations, and future needs. Environmental health perspectives, 113 (12), 1669–1674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barltrop, D. and Meek, F., 1979. Effect of particle size on lead absorption from the gut. Archives of environmental health, 34 (4), 280–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barmes, D.E., 1969. Caries etiology in Sepik villages – trace element, micronutrient and macronutrient content of soil and food. Caries research, 3 (1), 44–59.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barmes, D.E., Adkins, B.L., and Schamschula, R.G., 1970. Etiology of caries in Papua-New Guinea. Associations in soil, food and water. Bulletin of the world health organization, 43 (6), 769–784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barry, P., 1975. A comparison of concentrations of lead in human tissues. British journal of industrial medicine, 32 (2), 119–139.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barry, P. and Mossman, D., 1970. Lead concentrations in human tissues. British journal of industrial medicine, 27 (4), 339–351.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barry, V., Todd, A.C., and Steenland, K., 2019. Bone lead associations with blood lead, kidney function and blood pressure among US, lead-exposed workers in a surveillance programme. Occupational and environmental medicine, 76 (5), 349–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beltran-Aguilar, E.D., et al., 2005. Surveillance for dental caries, dental sealants, tooth retention, edentulism, and enamel fluorosis – United States, 1988–1994 and 1999–2002. Morbidity and mortality weekly report surveillance summaries (Washington, DC: 2002), 54 (3), 1–43.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bercovitz, K. and Laufer, D., 1990. Tooth type as indicator of exposure to lead of adults and children. Archives of oral biology, 35 (11), 895–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berkovitz, B.K., Holland, G.R., and Moxham, B.J., 2017. Oral anatomy, histology and embryology E-book. New York, NY: Elsevier Health Sciences.
   Google Scholar
• Bhardwaj, P. and Rai, D.V., 2016. Effect of lead toxicity on bone calcium content and morphometric parameters. International journal of research in medical sciences, 4 (1), 177–180.
   Google Scholar
• Bolanowska, W., 1968. Distribution and excretion of triethyllead in rats. British journal of industrial medicine, 25 (3), 203–208.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boskabaddy, M.H. and Farkhondeh, T., 2013. Inhaled lead exposure affects tracheal responsiveness and lung inflammation in guinea pigs during sensitization. Biological trace element research, 154 (3), 363–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boskabady, M., et al., 2018. The effect of environmental lead exposure on human health and the contribution of inflammatory mechanisms, a review. Environment international, 120, 404–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boskabady, M.H., et al., 2012. Tracheal responsiveness to methacholine and ovalbumin; and lung inflammation in guinea pigs exposed to inhaled lead after sensitization. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 86, 233–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boskabady, M.H., Tabatabai, S.A., and Farkhondeh, T., 2016. Inhaled lead affects lung pathology and inflammation in sensitized and control guinea pigs. Environmental toxicology, 31 (4), 452–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowen, W.H., 2001. Exposure to metal ions and susceptibility to dental caries. Journal of dental education, 65 (10), 1046–1053.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brudevold, F., et al., 1977. Lead in enamel and saliva, dental caries and the use of enamel biopsies for measuring past exposure to lead. Journal of dental research, 56 (10), 1165–1171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, A., et al., 1950. Lead in relation to disseminated sclerosis. Brain: a journal of neurology, 73 (1), 52–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, J.R. and Auinger, P., 2007. The association between blood lead levels and osteoporosis among adults—results from the third national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES III). Environmental health perspectives, 115 (7), 1018–1022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, J.R., et al., 2004. The association between environmental lead exposure and bone density in children. Environmental health perspectives, 112 (11), 1200–1203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmouche, J.J., et al., 2005. Lead exposure inhibits fracture healing and is associated with increased chondrogenesis, delay in cartilage mineralization, and a decrease in osteoprogenitor frequency. Environmental health perspectives, 113 (6), 749–755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cenic-Milosevic, D., et al., 2013. Environmental lead pollution and its possible influence on tooth loss and hard dental tissue lesions. Vojnosanitetski Pregled, 70 (8), 751–756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakraborty, S., et al., 2014. Impact of iron deficiency anemia on chronic periodontitis and superoxide dismutase activity: a cross-sectional study. Journal of periodontal & implant science, 44 (2), 57–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, S., et al., 1997. Suppression of macrophage metabolite production by lead glutamate in vitro is reversed by meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). In vitro toxicology, 10 (3), 351–358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng, Y., et al., 2001. Bone lead and blood lead levels in relation to baseline blood pressure and the prospective development of hypertension: the Normative Aging Study. American journal of epidemiology, 153 (2), 164–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleymaet, R., et al., 1991. A comparative study of the lead and cadmium content of surface enamel of Belgian and Kenyan children. The science of the total environment, 104 (3), 175–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conti, M.I., et al., 2012. Effects of lead exposure on growth and bone biology in growing rats exposed to simulated high altitude. Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology, 88 (6), 1033–1037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa de Almeida, G.R., et al., 2007. Lead contents in the surface enamel of deciduous teeth sampled in vivo from children in uncontaminated and in lead-contaminated areas. Environmental research, 104 (3), 337–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craan, A.G., Nadon, G., and P'An, A.Y., 1984. Lead flux through the kidney and salivary glands of rats. The American journal of physiology, 247(5 Pt 2), F773–F783.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Curzon, M.E., et al., 1970. Combined effect of trace elements and fluorine on caries. Journal of dental research, 49 (3), 526–528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curzon, M.E. and Crocker, D.C., 1978. Relationships of trace elements in human tooth enamel to dental caries. Archives of oral biology, 23 (8), 647–653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curzon, M.E.J. and Cutress, T.W., 1983. Trace elements and dental disease. Boston, MA: John Wright.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, B.E. and Anderson, R.J., 1987. The epidemiology of dental caries in relation to environmental trace elements. Experientia, 43 (1), 87–92.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Almeida, G.R.C., et al., 2009. Lead in saliva from lead-exposed and unexposed children. Science of the total environment, 407 (5), 1547–1550.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiGangi, E.A. and Moore, M.K., 2012. Research methods in human skeletal biology. London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dye, B.A., Hirsch, R., and Brody, D.J., 2002. The relationship between blood lead levels and periodontal bone loss in the United States, 1988–1994. Environmental health perspectives, 110 (10), 997–1002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eklund, S.A. and Burt, B.A., 1994. Risk factors for total tooth loss in the United States; longitudinal analysis of national data. Journal of public health dentistry, 54 (1), 5–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Said, K.F., et al., 2008. Chronic occupational exposure to lead and its impact on oral health. The journal of the Egyptian public health association, 83 (5–6), 451–466.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Escribano, A., et al., 1997. Effect of lead on bone development and bone mass: a morphometric, densitometric, and histomorphometric study in growing rats. Calcified tissue international, 60 (2), 200–203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farkhondeh, T., et al., 2014. The effect of lead exposure on tracheal responsiveness to methacholine and ovalbumin, total and differential white blood cells count, and serum levels of immunoglobulin E, histamine, and cytokines in guinea pigs. Human & experimental toxicology, 33 (3), 325–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farkhondeh, T., et al., 2013. The effect of lead exposure on selected blood inflammatory biomarkers in guinea pigs. Cardiovascular & hematological disorders – drug targets, 13 (1), 45–49.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fergusson, J., Jansen, M., and Sheat, A., 1980. Lead in deciduous teeth in relation to environmental lead. Environmental technology, 1 (8), 376–383.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortoul, T.I., et al., 2005. Sex differences in bronchiolar epithelium response after the inhalation of lead acetate (Pb). Toxicology, 207 (2), 323–330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowler, B.A., et al., 1980. Chronic low-level lead toxicity in the rat. III. An integrated assessment of long-term toxicity with special reference to the kidney. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 56 (1), 59–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foxman, B., et al., 2019. Primary teeth microhardness and lead (Pb) levels. Heliyon, 5 (4), e01551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank, R.M., et al., 1988. Age-related lead increase in human permanent teeth demonstrated by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence. Journal of trace elements and electrolytes in health and disease, 2 (3), 175–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gangoso, L., et al., 2009. Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 157 (2), 569–574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gdula-Argasinska, J., et al., 2004. Further investigation of the heavy metal content of the teeth of the bank vole as an exposure indicator of environmental pollution in Poland. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 131 (1), 71–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gemmel, A., et al., 2002. Blood lead level and dental caries in school-age children. Environmental health perspectives, 110 (10), A625–A630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerhardsson, L., et al., 1993. In vivo measurements of lead in bone in long-term exposed lead smelter workers. Archives of environmental health: an international journal, 48 (3), 147–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerlach, R.F., et al., 2002. Effect of lead on dental enamel formation. Toxicology, 175 (1–3), 27–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerlach, R.F., et al., 2000. Effect of lead, cadmium and zinc on the activity of enamel matrix proteinases in vitro. European journal of oral sciences, 108 (4), 327–334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil, F., et al., 1996. The association of tooth lead content with dental health factors. The science of the total environment, 192 (2), 183–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil, F., et al., 1994. Dental lead levels in the Galician population, Spain. The science of the total environment, 156 (2), 145–150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glenn, B.S., et al., 2003. The longitudinal association of lead with blood pressure. Epidemiology, 14, 30–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman, R.H., et al., 1994. Lead poisoning from mobilization of bone stores during thyrotoxicosis. American journal of industrial medicine, 25 (3), 417–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomes, V.E., et al., 2004. Lead level, enamel defects and dental caries in deciduous teeth. Revista de saude publica, 38 (5), 716–722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez-Riola, J., et al., 1997. Effect of lead on bone and cartilage in sexually mature rats: a morphometric and histomorphometry study. Environmental research, 74 (1), 91–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gracia, R.C. and Snodgrass, W.R., 2007. Lead toxicity and chelation therapy. American journal of health-system pharmacy, 64 (1), 45–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grandjean, P., Hansen, O.N., and Lyngbye, K., 1984. Analysis of lead in circumpulpal dentin of deciduous teeth. Annals of clinical and laboratory science, 14 (4), 270–275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimstead, D.N., Clark, A.E., and Rezac, A., 2018. Uranium and vanadium concentrations as a trace element method for identifying diagenetically altered bone in the inorganic phase. Journal of archaeological method and theory, 25 (3), 689–704.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruber, H.E., et al., 1997. Osteopenia induced by long-term, low- and high-level exposure of the adult rat to lead. Mineral and electrolyte metabolism, 23 (2), 65–73.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gulson, B.L., 1996. Tooth analyses of sources and intensity of lead exposure in children. Environmental health perspectives, 104 (3), 306–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, J.D. and O'Flaherty, E.J., 1994. Effects of lead exposure on skeletal development in rats. Fundamental and applied toxicology: official journal of the society of toxicology, 22 (4), 594–604.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hass, G.M., et al., 1964. Relations between lead poisoning in rabbit and man. The American journal of pathology, 45, 691–727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hicks, D.G., et al., 1996. Effects of lead on growth plate chondrocyte phenotype. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 140 (1), 164–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, S.F., Sam, C.T., and Embi, G.B., 1998. Lead exposure in the lead-acid storage battery manufacturing and PVC compounding industries. Occupational medicine (Oxford, England), 48 (6), 369–373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hohnadel, D.C., et al., 1973. Atomic absorption spectrometry of nickel, copper, zinc, and lead in sweat collected from healthy subjects during sauna bathing. Clinical chemistry, 19 (11), 1288–1292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoppin, J.A., et al., 2000. Measurement variability associated with KXRF bone lead measurement in young adults. Environmental health perspectives, 108 (3), 239–242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horton, M.K., et al., 2018. Dentine biomarkers of prenatal and early childhood exposure to manganese, zinc and lead and childhood behavior. Environment international, 121 *(Pt 1), 148–158.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hsu, P.C., et al., 1997. Lead exposure causes generation of reactive oxygen species and functional impairment in rat sperm. Toxicology, 122 (1–2), 133–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, H., et al., 1996a. The relationship of bone and blood lead to hypertension. The Normative Aging Study. JAMA, 275 (15), 1171–1176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, H., et al., 1996b. Determinants of bone and blood lead levels among community-exposed middle-aged to elderly men: the Normative Aging Study. American journal of epidemiology, 144 (8), 749–759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, D.E., et al., 2009. The relationship of housing and population health: a 30-year retrospective analysis. Environmental health perspectives, 117 (4), 597–604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaishankar, M., et al., 2014. Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 7 (2), 60–72.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jusko, T.A., et al., 2008. Blood lead concentrations < 10 microg/dL and child intelligence at 6 years of age. Environmental health perspectives, 116 (2), 243–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kadu, A.S., et al., 2012. Lead poisoning: an overlooked diagnosis in clinical practice. International journal of research in ayurveda and pharmacy, 3 (5), 639–644.
   Google Scholar
• Kamberi, B., Kocani, F., and Dragusha, E., 2012. Teeth as indicators of environmental pollution with lead. Journal of environmental & analytical toxicology, 02 (01), 1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Keys, D.W., Nixon, K.C., and Adkins, K.F., 1973. Oral manifestations of chronic lead-poisoning (plumbism): a case report. The New Zealand dental journal, 69 (317), 205–208.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khalil, N., et al., 2008. Relationship of blood lead levels to incident nonspine fractures and falls in older women: the study of osteoporotic fractures. Journal of bone and mineral research, 23 (9), 1417–1425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khandekar, R.N., Ashawa, S.C., and Kelkar, D.N., 1978. Dental lead levels in Bombay inhabitants. The science of the total environment, 10 (2), 129–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khandekar, R.N., Raghunath, R., and Mishra, U.C., 1986. Lead levels in teeth of an urban Indian population. The science of the total environment, 58 (3), 231–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khazdair, M.R., et al., 2012. Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function testes in lead exposed workers. Iranian red crescent medical journal, 14 (11), 738–742.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, R., et al., 1995. K x-ray fluorescence measurements of bone lead concentration: the analysis of low-level data. Physics in medicine and biology, 40 (9), 1475–1485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Y.S. and Ha, M., 2017. Association between low blood lead levels and increased risk of dental caries in children: a cross-sectional study. BMC oral health, 17 (1), 42.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, Y.-S., et al., 2017. Association between Low blood lead levels and increased risk of dental caries in children: a cross-sectional study. BMC oral health, 17 (1), 1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Korrick, S.A., et al., 1999. Lead and hypertension in a sample of middle-aged women. American journal of public health, 89 (3), 330–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, P., et al.,; NICHD Neonatal Research Network. 2013. Characteristics of extremely low-birth-weight infant survivors with unimpaired outcomes at 30 months of age. Journal of perinatology : official journal of the California perinatal association, 33 (10), 800–805.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landrigan, P., 1989. Toxicity of lead at low dose. British journal of industrial medicine, 46 (9), 593–596.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lappalainen, R. and Knuuttila, M., 1979. The distribution and accumulation of Cd, Zn, Pb, Cu, Co, Ni, Mn and K in human teeth from five different geological areas of Finland. Archives of oral biology, 24 (5), 363–368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, B.K., et al., 2001. Associations of blood pressure and hypertension with lead dose measures and polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase genes. Environmental health perspectives, 109 (4), 383–389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, C.M., et al., 2016. Chronic lead poisoning magnifies bone detrimental effects in an ovariectomized rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Experimental and toxicologic pathology, 68 (1), 47–53.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee, D.H., et al., 2006. Graded associations of blood lead and urinary cadmium concentrations with oxidative-stress-related markers in the U.S. population: results from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Environmental health perspectives, 114 (3), 350–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leite, G.A., et al., 2011. Exposure to lead exacerbates dental fluorosis. Archives of oral biology, 56 (7), 695–702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, S.M. and Goldberg, M., 2000. Clinical evaluation and management of lead-exposed construction workers. American journal of industrial medicine, 37 (1), 23–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, C., et al., 2004. Determinants of bone and blood lead levels among minorities living in the Boston area. Environmental health perspectives, 112 (11), 1147–1151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, Y., et al., 2019. Blood lead, bone lead and child attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-like behavior. Science of the total environment, 659, 161–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, K-s., et al., 2013. Neurotoxicity and biomarkers of lead exposure: a review. Chinese medical sciences journal = Chung-Kuo i Hsueh K'o Hsueh Tsa Chih, 28 (3), 178–188.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Locker, D., Ford, J., and Leake, J.L., 1996. Incidence of and risk factors for tooth loss in a population of older Canadians. Journal of dental research, 75 (2), 783–789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, H., et al., 2014. Effects of subchronic exposure to lead acetate and cadmium chloride on rat's bone: Ca and Pi contents, bone density, and histopathological evaluation. International journal of clinical and experimental pathology, 7 (2), 640–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ludwig, T.G., Adkins, B.L., and Losee, F.L., 1970. Relationship of concentrations of eleven elements in public water supplies to caries prevalence in American schoolchildren. Australian dental journal, 15 (2), 126–132.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin, M.D., et al., 2007. The association of dental caries with blood lead in children when adjusted for IQ and neurobehavioral performance. Science of the total environment, 377 (2–3), 159–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyahara, T., et al., 1994. Effects of lead on osteoclast-like cell formation in mouse bone marrow cell cultures. Calcified tissue international, 54 (2), 165–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyahara, T., et al., 1995. Stimulative effects of lead on bone resorption in organ culture. Toxicology, 97 (1–3), 191–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monir, A.U., et al., 2010. The effect of lead on bone mineral properties from female adult C57/BL6 mice. Bone, 47 (5), 888–894.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss, M.E., Lanphear, B.P., and Auinger, P., 1999. Association of dental caries and blood lead levels. *JAMA, 281 (24), 2294–2298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nash, D., et al., 2004. Bone density-related predictors of blood lead level among peri- and postmenopausal women in the United States: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. American journal of epidemiology, 160 (9), 901–911.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navas-Acien, A., et al., 2007. Lead exposure and cardiovascular disease–a systematic review. Environmental health perspectives, 115 (3), 472–482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Needleman, H.L., et al., 1974. Subclinical lead exposure in Philadelphia school children. Identification by dentine lead analysis. The New England journal of medicine, 290 (5), 245–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Needleman, H.L., et al., 1979. Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. The New England journal of medicine, 300 (13), 689–695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowak, B. and Chmielnicka, J., 2000. Relationship of lead and cadmium to essential elements in hair, teeth, and nails of environmentally exposed people. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 46 (3), 265–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oflaherty, E.J., 1995. Physiologically based models for bone-seeking elements: V. Lead absorption and disposition in childhood. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 131 (2), 297–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omokhodion, F.O. and Crockford, G.W., 1991. Lead in sweat and its relationship to salivary and urinary levels in normal healthy subjects. The science of the total environment, 103 (2–3), 113–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parikh, C., 1999. Parikh's textbook of medical jurisprudence, forensic medicine and toxicology. 6th ed. New Delhi: CBS Publishers and Distributors, 46–49.
   Google Scholar
• Paterson, L.J., et al., 1988. Factors influencing lead concentrations in shed deciduous teeth. The science of the total environment, 74, 219–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick, L., 2006. Lead toxicity, a review of the literature. Part I: exposure, evaluation, and treatment. Alternative medicine review: a journal of clinical therapeutic, 11 (1), 2–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payal, B., Kaur, H.P., and Rai, D.V., 2009. New insight into the effects of lead modulation on antioxidant defense mechanism and trace element concentration in rat bone. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 2 (1), 18–23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pearce, J.M., 2007. Burton's line in lead poisoning. European neurology, 57 (2), 118–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R.C., et al., 1999. Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome. Archives of neurology, 56 (3), 303–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pounds, J.G., 1984. Effect of lead intoxication on calcium homeostasis and calcium-mediated cell function: a review. Neurotoxicology, 5 (3), 295–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pounds, J.G., Long, G.J., and Rosen, J.F., 1991. Cellular and molecular toxicity of lead in bone. Environmental health perspectives, 91, 17–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purchase, N.G. and Fergusson, J.E., 1986. Lead in teeth: the influence of the tooth type and the sample within a tooth on lead levels. The science of the total environment, 52 (3), 239–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabinowitz, M.B., 1991. Toxicokinetics of bone lead. Environmental health perspectives, 91, 33–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabinowitz, M.B., Wetherill, G.W., and Kopple, J.D., 1976. Kinetic analysis of lead metabolism in healthy humans. The journal of clinical investigation, 58 (2), 260–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rădulescu, A. and Lundgren, S., 2019. A pharmacokinetic model of lead absorption and calcium competitive dynamics. Scientific reports, 9 (1), 1–27.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rao, G.S., 1984. Dietary intake and bioavailability of fluoride. Annual review of nutrition, 4 (1), 115–136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rashed, M.N., Gad, A.A.-E., and Fathy, N.M., 2019. Adsorption of Cd (II) and Pb (II) using physically pretreated camel bone biochar. Advanced journal of chemistry-section A (Theoretical, engineering and applied chemistry), 2 (4), 266-385, 347–364.
   Google Scholar
• Renner, R., 2010. Exposure on tap: drinking water as an overlooked source of lead. Environmental health perspectives, 118 (2), A68–A72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez, J. and Mandalunis, P.M., 2018. A review of metal exposure and its effects on bone health. Journal of toxicology, 2018, 1–11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronis, M.J., et al., 2001. Skeletal effects of developmental lead exposure in rats. Toxicological sciences, 62 (2), 321–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell Jones, R., 1989. The continuing hazard of lead in drinking water. The lancet, 334 (8664), 669–670.
   Google Scholar
• Saraiva, M.C., et al., 2007. Lead exposure and periodontitis in US adults. Journal of periodontal research, 42 (1), 45–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schanne, F.A., et al., 1989. Lead increases free Ca2+ concentration in cultured osteoblastic bone cells: simultaneous detection of intracellular free Pb2+ by 19F NMR. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the United States of America, 86 (13), 5133–5135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, J., Angle, C., and Pitcher, H., 1986. Relationship between childhood blood lead levels and stature. Pediatrics, 77 (3), 281–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, I.M., et al., 1975. The lead content of teeth. Evidence establishing new minimal levels of exposure in a living preindustrialized human population. Archives of environmental health, 30 (10), 483–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp, D.S., Becker, C.E., and Smith, A.H., 1987. Chronic low-level lead exposure. Its role in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Medical toxicology, 2 (3), 210–232.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shih, R.A., et al., 2007. Cumulative lead dose and cognitive function in adults: a review of studies that measured both blood lead and bone lead. Environmental health perspectives, 115 (3), 483–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiri, R., et al., 2007. Lead poisoning and recurrent abdominal pain. Industrial health, 45 (3), 494–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukla, R., et al., 1989. Fetal and infant lead exposure: effects on growth in stature. Pediatrics, 84 (4), 604–612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silbergeld, E.K., Schwartz, J., and Mahaffey, K., 1988. Lead and osteoporosis: mobilization of lead from bone in postmenopausal women. Environmental research, 47 (1), 79–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, T.J., 1993. Lead-calcium interactions in cellular lead toxicity. Neurotoxicology, 14 (2–3), 77–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, V.K., et al., 2003. Immunomodulation by lead. Immunologic research, 28 (2), 151–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, M., et al., 1983. The effects of lead exposure on urban children: the Institute of Child Health/Southampton Study. Developmental medicine and child neurology. Supplement, 47, 1–54.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sobel, A.E. and Burger, M., 1955. Calcification. XIII. The influence of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D on the removal of lead from blood and bone. The journal of biological chemistry, 212 (1), 105–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sophiya Juliet, G. and Gurunathan, D., 2019. Knowledge and attitude among dentist regarding CPP-ACP as a preventive tool. Indian journal of lublic health research & development, 10 (11), 3732–3735.
   Google Scholar
• Steenhout, A. and Pourtois, M., 1981. Lead accumulation in teeth as a function of age with different exposures. British journal of industrial medicine, 38 (3), 297–303.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stewart, D.J., 1974. Teeth as indicators of exposure of children to lead. Archives of disease in childhood, 49 (11), 895–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, L.J., 2018. Veterinary Toxicology. 3rd ed. London: Elsevier, pp. 439–443.
   Google Scholar
• Tiwari, S., Tripathi, I., and Tiwari, H., 2014. Blood lead level – a review. International journal of scientific engineering and technology, 3 (4), 330–333.
   Google Scholar
• Tort, B., et al., 2018. Lead exposure may affect gingival health in children. BMC oral health, 18 (1), 79.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsaih, S.W., et al., 2004. Lead, diabetes, hypertension, and renal function: the normative aging study. Environmental health prspectives, 112 (11), 1178–1182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentino, M., et al., 2007. Effect of lead on the levels of some immunoregulatory cytokines in occupationally exposed workers. Human & experimental toxicology, 26 (7), 551–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van de Wiele, T.R., et al., 2007. Comparison of five in vitro digestion models to in vivo experimental results: lead bioaccessibility in the human gastrointestinal tract. Journal of environmental science and health, part A, 42 (9), 1203–1211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaziri, N.D. and Rodríguez-Iturbe, B., 2006. Mechanisms of disease: oxidative stress and inflammation in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Nature clinical practice. Nephrology, 2 (10), 582–593.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watanabe, H., Hu, H., and Rotnitzky, A., 1994. Correlates of bone and blood lead levels in carpenters. American journal of industrial medicine, 26 (2), 255–264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, G.E., et al., 1997. Influence of maternal lead ingestion on caries in rat pups. Nature medicine, 3 (9), 1024–1025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weaver, V.M., et al., 2005. Associations among lead dose biomarkers, uric acid, and renal function in Korean lead workers. Environmental health perspectives, 113 (1), 36–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisskopf, M.G., et al., 2007. Cumulative lead exposure and cognitive performance among elderly men. Epidemiology, 18, 59–66.
   Google Scholar
• Whitney, E.N. and Rolfes, S.R., 2017. Understanding nutrition. London: Cengage Learning.
   Google Scholar
• Wiener, R.C., Long, D.L., and Jurevic, R.J., 2015. Blood levels of the heavy metal, lead, and caries in children aged 24–72 months: NHANES III. Caries research, 49 (1), 26–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisotzky, J. and Hein, J.W., 1958. Effects of drinking solutions containing metallic ions above and below hydrogen in the electromotive series on dental caries in the Syrian hamster. Journal of the American dental association (1939), 57 (6), 796–800.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wu, Y., et al., 2019. The associations between lead exposure at multiple sensitive life periods and dental caries risks in permanent teeth. The science of the total environment, 654, 1048–1055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yepes, J.M., et al., 2020. Blood levels of lead and dental caries in permanent teeth. Journal of public health dentistry, 80 (4), 297–303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yetkin-Ay, Z., et al., 2007. The periodontal status of indirectly lead-exposed apprentices working in autorepair workshops. Toxicology and industrial health, 23 (10), 599–606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Youravong, N., et al., 2006. Lead associated caries development in children living in a lead contaminated area, Thailand. The science of the total environment, 361 (1–3), 88–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Youravong, N. and Teanpaisan, R., 2015. The periodontal health of lead-exposed children living in a shipyard industrial area. Toxicology and industrial health, 31 (5), 459–466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar