Drug interactions between buprenorphine, methadone and hepatitis C therapeutics

References

• Altice FL, Kamarulzaman A, Soriano VV, et al. Treatment of medical, psychiatric, and substance-use comorbidities in people infected with HIV who use drugs. Lancet. 2010;376:367–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad C, Bradley HM, Broz D, et al. Community outbreak of HIV infection linked to injection drug use of oxymorphone – Indiana, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:443–444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johannes CB, Le TK, Zhou X, et al. The prevalence of chronic pain in United States adults: results of an Internet-based survey. J Pain. 2010;11:1230–1239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sifferlin A. The problem with treating pain in America. Time Magazine. New York City: Time Inc.
   Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health. Pathways to prevention workshop: the role of opioids in the treatment of chronic pain; Executive Summary Final Report. 2014. [cited 2015 Oct 10]. Available from: https://prevention.nih.gov/docs/programs/p2p/ODPPainPanelStatementFinal_10-02-14.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Kolodny A, Courtwright DT, Hwang CS, et al. The prescription opioid and heroin crisis: a public health approach to an epidemic of addiction. Annu Rev Public Health. 2015;36:559–574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vowles KE, McEntee ML, Julnes PS, et al. Rates of opioid misuse, abuse, and addiction in chronic pain: a systematic review and data synthesis. Pain. 2015;156:569–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheatle MD. Prescription opioid misuse, abuse, morbidity, and mortality: balancing effective pain management and safety. Pain Med. 2015;16(Suppl 1):S3–S8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tadros A, Layman SM, Davis SM, et al. Emergency visits for prescription opioid poisonings. J Emerg Med. 2015;49:871–877.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 1999–2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:1487–1492.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsui JI, Herman DS, Kettavong M, et al. Chronic pain and hepatitis C virus infection in opioid dependent injection drug users. J Addict Dis. 2011;30:91–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muhuri PK, Gfroerer JC, Davies MC. Associations of nonmedical pain reliever use and initiation of heroin use in the United States. CBHSQ Data Rev. 2013;1–17. August. [cited 2016 May 20]. http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k13/DataReview/DR006/nonmedical-pain-reliever-use-2013.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Alavi M, Grebely J, Micallef M, et al. Assessment and treatment of hepatitis C virus infection among people who inject drugs in the opioid substitution setting: ETHOS study. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(Suppl 2):S62–S69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepard CW, Finelli L, Alter MJ. Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5:558–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruneau J, Roy E, Arruda N, et al. The rising prevalence of prescription opioid injection and its association with hepatitis C incidence among street-drug users. Addiction. 2012;107:1318–1327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly BC, Parsons JT. Prescription drug misuse and sexual risk taking among HIV-negative MSM. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:926–930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benotsch EG, Martin AM, Koester S, et al. Nonmedical use of prescription drugs and HIV risk behavior in gay and bisexual men. Sex Transm Dis. 2011;38:105–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danta M, Brown D, Bhagani S, et al. Recent epidemic of acute hepatitis C virus in HIV-positive men who have sex with men linked to high-risk sexual behaviours. Aids. 2007;21:983–991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: summary of national findings, NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. 2013. [cited 2016 May 20]. http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresults2012/NSDUHresults2012.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Edlin BR, Eckhardt BJ, Shu MA, et al. Towards a more accurate estimate of the prevalence of hepatitis C in the United States. Hepatology. 2015;62:1353–1363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pol S, Corouge M, Sogni P. Oral antiviral therapies for chronic hepatitis C infection. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2013;1:107–116.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ermis F, Senocak Tasci E. New treatment strategies for hepatitis C infection. World J Hepatol. 2015;7:2100–2109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang H, Zhang J, Streisand JB. Oral mucosal drug delivery: clinical pharmacokinetics and therapeutic applications. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41:661–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho HJ, Kim JE, Kim DD, et al. In vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) for predicting human intestinal absorption and first-pass elimination of drugs: principles and applications. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2014;40:989–998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alqahtani S, Mohamed LA, Kaddoumi A. Experimental models for predicting drug absorption and metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2013;9:1241–1254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guengerich FP. Cytochrome P-450 3A4: regulation and role in drug metabolism. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1999;39:1–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruce RD, Moody DE, Fang WB, et al. Tipranavir/ritonavir induction of buprenorphine glucuronide metabolism in HIV-negative subjects chronically receiving buprenorphine/naloxone. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2011;37:224–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamison RN, Mao J. Opioid analgesics. Mayo Clin Proc. 2015;90:957–968.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow ND, Frieden TR, Hyde PS, et al. Medication-assisted therapies – tackling the opioid-overdose epidemic. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:2063–2066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 19th WHO model list of essential medicines. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Eap CB, Bourquin M, Martin J, et al. Plasma concentrations of the enantiomers of methadone and therapeutic response in methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2000;61:47–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NDA 17-116/S-021 for Methadose™ oral concentrate and Methadose™ sugar-free oral concentrate submitted to FDA 2008 Feb Tyco Healthcare. [cited 2015 Oct 10] Available from: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/017116s021lbl.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Kapur BM, Hutson JR, Chibber T, et al. Methadone: a review of drug-drug and pathophysiological interactions. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2011;48:171–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weschules DJ, Bain KT, Richeimer S. Actual and potential drug interactions associated with methadone. Pain Med. 2008;9:315–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruce RD, Moody DE, Altice FL, et al. A review of pharmacological interactions between HIV or hepatitis C virus medications and opioid agonist therapy: implications and management for clinical practice. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2013;6:249–269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kharasch ED, Bedynek PS, Park S, et al. Mechanism of ritonavir changes in methadone pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics: I. Evidence against CYP3A mediation of methadone clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;84:497–505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff K, Hay AW, Raistrick D, et al. Steady-state pharmacokinetics of methadone in opioid addicts. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1993;44:189–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruce RD. Medical interventions for addiction. In Al. Gendelman, et al. ed. Neurology of AIDS. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Elkader A, Sproule B. Buprenorphine: clinical pharmacokinetics in the treatment of opioid dependence. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44:661–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris DS, Mendelson JE, Lin ET, et al. Pharmacokinetics and subjective effects of sublingual buprenorphine, alone or in combination with naloxone: lack of dose proportionality. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2004;43:329–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown SM, Holtzman M, Kim T, et al. Buprenorphine metabolites, buprenorphine-3-glucuronide and norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide, are biologically active. Anesthesiology. 2011;115:1251–1260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody DE, Fang WB, Morrison J, et al. Gender differences in pharmacokinetics of maintenance dosed buprenorphine. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;118:479–483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruce RD, McCance-Katz E, Kharasch ED, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between buprenorphine and antiretroviral medications. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(Suppl 4):S216–S223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciraulo DA, Hitzemann RJ, Somoza E, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of multiple sublingual buprenorphine tablets in dose-escalation trials. J Clin Pharmacol. 2006;46:179–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Sherif O, Khoo S, Solas C. Key drug-drug interactions with direct-acting antiviral in HIV-HCV coinfection. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2015;10:348–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamarre D, Anderson PC, Bailey M, et al. An NS3 protease inhibitor with antiviral effects in humans infected with hepatitis C virus. Nature. 2003;426:186–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen SH, Tan SL. Discovery of small-molecule inhibitors of HCV NS3-4A protease as potential therapeutic agents against HCV infection. Curr Med Chem. 2005;12:2317–2342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Telaprevir: clinical pharmacology and biopharmaceutics review. Washington (DC): Food and Drug Administration; 2010. p. 1–383. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2011/201917Orig1s000ClinPharmR.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Kiang TK, Wilby KJ, Ensom MH. Telaprevir: clinical pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and drug-drug interactions. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2013;52:487–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc. VP. Incivek^TM (Telaprevir): US prescribing information. 2012. [cited 2015 Dec 20] Available from: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/201917lbl.pdf
   Google Scholar
• FDA approves new treatment for hepatitis C virus: News release on OlysioTM (Simeprevir). FDA 2013. [cited 2015 Dec 28] Available from http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm376449.htm
   Google Scholar
• Janssen products. Olysio^TM (simeprevir): US Prescribing information. 2015. [cited 2015 Dec 28] Available from: http://www.olysio.com/shared/product/olysio/prescribing-information.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Lin TI, Lenz O, Fanning G, et al. In vitro activity and preclinical profile of TMC435350, a potent hepatitis C virus protease inhibitor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:1377–1385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouwerkerk-Mahadevan S, Beumont-Mauviel M, Mortier S, et al. Evaluation of the pharmacokinetics and renal excretion of simeprevir in subjects with renal impairment. Drugs R D. 2015;15:261–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reghellin V, Donnici L, Fenu S, et al. NS5A inhibitors impair NS5A-phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIIalpha complex formation and cause a decrease of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate and cholesterol levels in hepatitis C virus-associated membranes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:7128–7140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degasperi E, Aghemo A, Colombo M. Daclatasvir for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2015;16:2679–2688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FDA approves new treatment for chronic hepatitis C genotype 3 infections: news release on DaclinzaTM (daclatasvir). FDA 2015. [cited 2015 Dec 29] Available from: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm455888.htm
   Google Scholar
• American Association for the study of Liver Diseases/Infectious Diseases Society of America. Initial treatment of HCV infection in HCV guidance: recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C. 2015. [cited 2016 Mar 24] Available from: http://www.hcvguidelines.org/full-report-view
   Google Scholar
• Gilead Sciences. Daklinza^TM (daclatasvir): full precribing information. 2015. [cited 2015 Dec 29] Available from: http://packageinserts.bms.com/pi/pi_daklinza.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Xie Y, Jiang X, Li J, et al. Nucleoside inhibitors of hepatitis C Virus NS5B polymerase: a systematic review. Curr Drug Targets. 2015. [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legrand-Abravanel F, Nicot F, Izopet J. New NS5B polymerase inhibitors for hepatitis C. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2010;19:963–975.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilead Sciences. Harvoni^TM (ledipasvir and sofosbuvir) tablets for oral use: full prescribing information. 2014. [cited 2015 Dec 29]. Available from: http://www.gilead.com/~/media/Files/pdfs/medicines/liver-disease/harvoni/harvoni_pi.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nazario HE, Ndungu M, Modi AA. Sofosbuvir and simeprevir in hepatitis C genotype 1-patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis or GFR <30mL/min. Liver Int. 2015. doi:10.1111/liv.13025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hundemer GL, Sise ME, Wisocky J, et al. Use of sofosbuvir-based direct-acting antiviral therapy for hepatitis C viral infection in patients with severe renal insufficiency. Infect Dis (Lond). 2015;47:924–929.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gentile I, Borgia F, Buonomo AR, et al. ABT-450: a novel protease inhibitor for the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection. Curr Med Chem. 2014;21:3261–3270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbvie Inc. Viekira Pak^TM: AbbVie Receives U.S. FDA Approval of VIEKIRA PAK™ (Ombitasvir/Paritaprevir/Ritonavir Tablets; Dasabuvir Tablets) for the Treatment of Chronic Genotype 1 Hepatitis C. 2014. [cited 2015 Dec 28] Available from: http://abbvie.mediaroom.com/2014-12-19-AbbVie-Receives-U-S-FDA-Approval-of-VIEKIRA-PAK-Ombitasvir-Paritaprevir-Ritonavir-Tablets-Dasabuvir-Tablets-for-the-Treatment-of-Chronic-Genotype-1-Hepatitis-C
   Google Scholar
• Badri PS, Dutta S, Wang H, et al. Drug interactions with the direct-acting antiviral combination of ombitasvir and paritaprevir/ritonavir (2D Regimen). Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;37:2560–2571.
   Google Scholar
• Abbvie Inc. Technivie^TM: US Prescibing information. 2015. [cited 2016 Mar 24] Available from: http://www.rxabbvie.com/pdf/technivie_pi.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Menon RM, Klein CE, Podsadecki TJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tolerability of paritaprevir, a direct-acting antiviral agent for HCV treatment, with and without ritonavir in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2015. doi:10.1111/bcp.12873.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klibanov OM, Gale SE, Santevecchi B. Ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir and dasabuvir tablets for hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection. Ann Pharmacother. 2015;49:566–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilot-Matias T, Koev G, Krishnan P, et al. 867 In vitro combinatory effect of HCV NS3/4A protease inhibitor ABT-450, NS5A inhibitor ABT-267, and non-nucleoside NS5B polymerase inhibitor ABT 333. J Hepatol. 2012;56:S338.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sulkowski MS, Eron JJ, Wyles D, et al. Ombitasvir, paritaprevir co-dosed with ritonavir, dasabuvir, and ribavirin for hepatitis C in patients co-infected with HIV-1: a randomized trial. Jama. 2015;313:1223–1231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreone P, Colombo MG, Enejosa JV, et al. ABT-450, ritonavir, ombitasvir, and dasabuvir achieves 97% and 100% sustained virologic response with or without ribavirin in treatment-experienced patients with HCV genotype 1b infection. Gastroenterology. 2014;147:359–365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feld JJ, Kowdley KV, Coakley E, et al. Treatment of HCV with ABT-450/r-ombitasvir and dasabuvir with ribavirin. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1594–1603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbvie Inc. VIEKIRA PAK^TM (ombitasvir, paritaprevir, and ritonavir tablets; dasabuvir tablets), full prescribing information. 2014. [cited 2015 Dec 29]. Available from: http://www.rxabbvie.com/pdf/viekirapak_pi.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Link JO, Taylor JG, Xu L, et al. Discovery of ledipasvir (GS-5885): a potent, once-daily oral NS5A inhibitor for the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Chem. 2014;57:2033–2046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gentile I, Buonomo AR, Borgia F, et al. Ledipasvir: a novel synthetic antiviral for the treatment of HCV infection. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2014;23:561–571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawitz EJ, Gruener D, Hill JM, et al. A phase 1, randomized, placebo-controlled, 3-day, dose-ranging study of GS-5885, an NS5A inhibitor, in patients with genotype 1 hepatitis C. J Hepatol. 2012;57:24–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gritsenko D, Hughes G. Ledipasvir/Sofosbuvir (harvoni): improving options for hepatitis C virus infection. Pharm Ther. 2015;40:256–276.
   Google Scholar
• Voelker R. Combination treatment for HCV. Jama. 2016;315:1101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu R, Curry S, McMonagle P, et al. Susceptibilities of genotype 1a, 1b, and 3 hepatitis C virus variants to the NS5A inhibitor elbasvir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:6922–6929.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merck and Co., Inc. Zepatier™ (elbasvir and grazoprevir) tablets for oral use: US prescribing information. 2016. [cited 2016 Mar 24] Available from: https://www.merck.com/product/usa/pi_circulars/z/zepatier/zepatier_pi.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Van Heeswijk R, Verboven P, Vandevoorde A, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction between telaprevir and methadone. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:2304–2309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menon RM, Badri PS, Wang T, et al. Drug-drug interaction profile of the all-oral anti-hepatitis C virus regimen of paritaprevir/ritonavir, ombitasvir, and dasabuvir. J Hepatol. 2015;63:20–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning JMCM, Clemons D, Fang L, et al. Lack of effect of the nucleotide analog polymerase inhibitor PSI-7977 on methadone pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics [abstract 372]. San Francisco, CA: American Association for the study of Liver Diseases; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Ouwerkerk-Mahadevan OB-M-M, Peeters M, Akuma SSV. The pharmacokinetic interaction between the investigational NS3/4A HCV protease inhibitor TMC435 and methadone [abstract]. Hepatology. 2011;56:AI353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervasoni C, Peri AM, Cattaneo D, et al. Simeprevir-induced severe withdrawal syndrome in an HIV/HCV coinfected patient on long-term maintenance methadone therapy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;71:1027–1028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garimella T, Wang R, Luo WL, et al. Evaluation of drug-drug interaction between daclatasvir and methadone or buprenorphine/naloxone. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19628.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo X, Trevejo J, Van Heeswijk RP, et al. Effect of telaprevir on the pharmacokinetics of buprenorphine in volunteers on stable buprenorphine/naloxone maintenance therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:3641–3647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boas R, Villiger J. Clinical actions of fentanyl and buprenorphine – the significance of receptor binding. Br J Anaesth. 1985;57:192–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahan A. Opioid-induced respiratory effects: new data on buprenorphine. Palliat Med. 2006;20:3–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohd Hanafiah K, Groeger J, Flaxman AD, et al. Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection: new estimates of age-specific antibody to HCV seroprevalence. Hepatology. 2013;57:1333–1342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer JR, Kanwal F, Richardson P, et al. Gaps in the achievement of effectiveness of HCV treatment in national VA practice. J Hepatol. 2012;56:320–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehia BR, Schranz AJ, Umscheid CA, et al. The treatment cascade for chronic hepatitis C virus infection in the United States: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014;9:e101554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortez KJ, Kottilil S. Beyond interferon: rationale and prospects for newer treatment paradigms for chronic hepatitis C. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2015;6:4–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruta S, Cernescu C. Injecting drug use: a vector for the introduction of new hepatitis C virus genotypes. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21:10811–10823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valerio H, Goldberg DJ, Lewsey J, et al. Evidence of continued injecting drug use after attaining sustained treatment-induced clearance of the hepatitis C virus: implications for reinfection. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;154:125–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickman M, De Angelis D, Vickerman P, et al. Hepatitis C virus treatment as prevention in people who inject drugs: testing the evidence. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2015;28:576–582.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin NK, Vickerman P, Dore GJ, et al. The hepatitis C virus epidemics in key populations (including people who inject drugs, prisoners and MSM): the use of direct-acting antivirals as treatment for prevention. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2015;10:374–380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prandota J. Limitations in the clinical usefulness of single-dose pharmacokinetic studies of drugs and a Bayesian approach for the estimation of kinetic parameters. Am J Ther. 2004;11:295–301.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Louie KS, St Laurent S, Forssen UM, et al. The high comorbidity burden of the hepatitis C virus infected population in the United States. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butt AA, Khan UA, McGinnis KA, et al. Co-morbid medical and psychiatric illness and substance abuse in HCV-infected and uninfected veterans. J Viral Hepat. 2007;14:890–896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar