593
Views
13
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations in antimicrobial therapy for sepsis

, , , , , , & show all
Pages 415-430 | Received 27 Jan 2020, Accepted 30 Mar 2020, Published online: 17 Apr 2020

References

  • Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, et al. Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990 – 2017: analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet. 2020;395(10219):200–211.
  • Paoli CJ, Reynolds MA, Sinha M, et al. Epidemiology and costs of sepsis in the United States-an analysis based on timing of diagnosis and severity level. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(12):1889–1897.
  • Abe T, Ogura H, Shiraishi A, et al. Characteristics, management, and in-hospital mortality among patients with severe sepsis in intensive care units in Japan: the FORECAST study. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):1–12.
  • Shankar-Hari M, Harrison DA, Rubenfeld GD, et al. Epidemiology of sepsis and septic shock in critical care units: comparison between sepsis-2 and sepsis-3 populations using a national critical care database. Br J Anaesth. 2017;119(4):626–636.
  • Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(3):304–377.
  • Lagunes L, Encina B, Ramirez-Estrada S. Current understanding in source control management in septic shock patients: a review. Ann Transl Med. 2016;4(17):330.
  • Varghese JM, Roberts JA, Lipman J. Antimicrobial pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic issues in the critically ill with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Clin. 2011;27(1):19–34.
  • Roberts JA, Abdul-Aziz MH, Lipman J, et al. Individualised antibiotic dosing for patients who are critically ill: challenges and potential solutions. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14(6):498–509.
  • Roberts JA, Paul SK, Akova M, et al. DALI: defining antibiotic levels in intensive care unit patients: are current ß-lactam antibiotic doses sufficient for critically ill patients? Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(8):1072–1083.
  • Zelenitsky SA, Harding GKM, Sun S, et al. Treatment and outcome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteraemia: an antibiotic pharmacodynamic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;52(4):668–674.
  • Sumi CD, Heffernan AJ, Lipman J, et al. What antibiotic exposures are required to suppress the emergence of resistance for gram-negative bacteria? A systematic review. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2019;58(11):1407–1443.
  • Li C, Du X, Kuti JL, et al. Clinical pharmacodynamics of meropenem in patients with lower respiratory tract infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51(5):1725–1730.
  • McKinnon PS, Paladino JA, Schentag JJ. Evaluation of area under the inhibitory curve (AUIC) and time above the minimum inhibitory concentration (T > MIC) as predictors of outcome for cefepime and ceftazidime in serious bacterial infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2008;31(4):345–351.
  • Zelenitsky S, Rubinstein E, Ariano R, et al. Vancomycin pharmacodynamics and survival in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-associated septic shock. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013;41(3):255–260.
  • Highet VS. Antibiotic dosing issues in lower respiratory tract infection: population-derived area under inhibitory curve is predictive of efficacy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43(90001):55–63.
  • Forrest A, Nix DE, Ballow CH, et al. Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993;37(5):1073–1081.
  • Rubino CM, Bhavnani SM, Forrest A, et al. Pharmacokinetics-pharmacodynamics of tigecycline in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56(1):130–136.
  • Brosh-Nissimov T, Ben-Ami R. Differential association of fluconazole dose and dose/MIC ratio with mortality in patients with Candida albicans and non-albicans bloodstream infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21(11):1011–1017.
  • Blot SI, Pea F, Lipman J. The effect of pathophysiology on pharmacokinetics in the critically ill patient - Concepts appraised by the example of antimicrobial agents. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2014;20(77):3–11.
  • Felton T, Troke PF, Hope WW. Tissue penetration of antifungal agents. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014;27(1):68–88.
  • Niemiec PW, Allo MD, Miller CF. Effect of altered volume of distribution on aminoglycoside levels in patients in surgical intensive care. Arch Surg. 1987;122(2):207–212.
  • Marik PE. Aminoglycoside volume of distribution and illness severity in critically ill septic patients. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1993;21(2):172–173.
  • Sandri AM, Landersdorfer CB, Jacob J, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of intravenous polymyxin B in critically Ill patients: implications for selection of dosage regimens. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(4):524–531.
  • Carlier M, Dumoulin A, Janssen A, et al. Comparison of different equations to assess glomerular filtration in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(3):427–435.
  • Cherry RA, Eachempati SR, Hydo L, et al. Accuracy of short-duration creatinine clearance determinations in predicting 24-hour creatinine clearance in critically ill and injured patients. J Trauma. 2002;53(2):267–271.
  • Udy AA, Roberts JA, Boots RJ, et al. Augmented renal clearance: implications for antibacterial dosing in the critically Ill. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2010;49(1):1–16.
  • Bilbao-Meseguer I, Rodríguez-Gascón A, Barrasa H, et al. Augmented renal clearance in critically ill patients: a systematic review. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2018;57(9):1107–1121.
  • Udy AA, Dulhunty JM, Roberts JA, et al. Association between augmented renal clearance and clinical outcomes in patients receiving β-lactam antibiotic therapy by continuous or intermittent infusion: a nested cohort study of the BLING-II randomised, placebo-controlled, clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2017;49(5):624–630.
  • Udy AA, Roberts JA, Shorr AF, et al. Augmented renal clearance in septic and traumatized patients with normal plasma creatinine concentrations: identifying at-risk patients. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R35.
  • Carrié C, Petit L, d’Houdain N, et al. Association between augmented renal clearance, antibiotic exposure and clinical outcome in critically ill septic patients receiving high doses of β-lactams administered by continuous infusion: a prospective observational study. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2018;51(3):443–449.
  • Claus BOM, Hoste EA, Colpaert K, et al. Augmented renal clearance is a common finding with worse clinical outcome in critically ill patients receiving antimicrobial therapy. J Crit Care. 2013;28(5):695–700.
  • Cucci M, Wooten C, Fowler M, et al. Incidence and risk factors associated with multi-drug–resistant pathogens in a critically ill trauma population: a retrospective cohort study. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2020;21(1):15–22.
  • Inoue K, Tsuji D, Shimomura T, et al. Augmented renal clearance in patients with febrile neutropenia is associated with increased risk for subtherapeutic concentrations of vancomycin. Ther Drug Monit. 2016;38(6):706–710.
  • Udy AA, Varghese JM, Altukroni M, et al. Subtherapeutic initial β-lactam concentrations in select critically Ill patients: association between augmented renal clearance and low trough drug concentrations. Chest. 2012;142(1):30–39.
  • Baptista JP, Sousa E, Martins PJ, et al. Augmented renal clearance in septic patients and implications for vancomycin optimisation. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2012;39(5):420–423.
  • Carlier M, Carrette S, Roberts JA, et al. Meropenem and piperacillin/tazobactam prescribing in critically ill patients: does augmented renal clearance affect pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic target attainment when extended infusions are used? Crit Care. 2013;17(3):R84.
  • Dhaese SAM, Roberts JA, Carlier M, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of continuous infusion of piperacillin in critically ill patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2018;51(4):594–600.
  • Tsai D, Stewart P, Goud R, et al. Optimising meropenem dosing in critically ill Australian Indigenous patients with severe sepsis. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2016;48(5):542–546.
  • Tamatsukuri T, Ohbayashi M, Kohyama N, et al. The exploration of population pharmacokinetic model for meropenem in augmented renal clearance and investigation of optimum setting of dose. J Infect Chemother. 2018;24(10):834–840.
  • Roberts JA, Udy AA, Jarrett P, et al. Plasma and target-site subcutaneous tissue population pharmacokinetics and dosing simulations of cefazolin in post-trauma critically ill patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;70(5):1495–1502.
  • Ollivier J, Carrié C, d’Houdain N, et al. Are standard dosing regimens of ceftriaxone adapted for critically ill patients with augmented creatinine clearance? Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019;63(3):26.
  • Zasowski E, Bland CM, Tam VH, et al. Identification of optimal renal dosage adjustments for high-dose extended-infusion cefepime dosing regimens in hospitalized patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70(3):877–881.
  • Sime FB, Lassig-Smith M, Starr T, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of unbound ceftolozane and tazobactam in critically ill patients without renal dysfunction. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019;63(10). DOI:10.1128/AAC.01265-19.
  • Baptista PP, Roberts JA, Sousa E, et al. Decreasing the time to achieve therapeutic vancomycin concentrations in critically ill patients: developing and testing of a dosing nomogram. Crit Care. 2014;18(1):1–9.
  • Vincent JL, Sakr Y, Sprung CL, et al. Sepsis in European intensive care units: results of the SOAP study. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(2):344–353.
  • Bagshaw SM, George C, Bellomo R. Early acute kidney injury and sepsis: a multicentre evaluation. Crit Care. 2008;12(2):R47.
  • Poukkanen M, Vaara ST, Pettilä V, et al. Acute kidney injury in patients with severe sepsis in finnish intensive care units. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2013;57(7):863–872.
  • Gilbert B, Robbins P, Livornese LL. Use of antibacterial agents in renal failure. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2009;23(4):899–924.
  • Aloy B, Launay-Vacher V, Bleibtreu A, et al. Antibiotics and chronic kidney disease: dose adjustment update for infectious disease clinical practice. Med Mal Infect. 2019;17. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Blot S, Lipman J, Roberts DM, et al. The influence of acute kidney injury on antimicrobial dosing in critically ill patients: are dose reductions always necessary? Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014;79(1):77–84.
  • Peters E, Antonelli M, Wittebole X, et al. A worldwide multicentre evaluation of the influence of deterioration or improvement of acute kidney injury on clinical outcome in critically ill patients with and without sepsis at ICU admission: results from the intensive care over nations audit. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):1–11.
  • Hoff BM, Maker JH, Dager WE, et al. Antibiotic dosing for critically ill adult patients receiving intermittent hemodialysis, prolonged intermittent renal replacement therapy, and continuous renal replacement therapy: an update. Ann Pharmacother. 2020;54(1):43–55.
  • Pistolesi V, Morabito S, Di Mario F, et al. A guide to understanding antimicrobial drug dosing in critically ill patients on renal replacement therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019;63(8):pii: e00583–19.
  • Ahmed AR, Obilana A, Lappin D. Renal replacement therapy in the critical care setting. Crit Care Res Pract. 2019;16:6948710.
  • Roberts JA, Choi GYS, Joynt GM, et al. SaMpling Antibiotics in Renal Replacement Therapy (SMARRT): an observational pharmacokinetic study in critically ill patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16(1):103.
  • Bergner R, Hoffmann M, Riedel KD, et al. Fluconazole dosing in continuous veno-venous haemofiltration (CVVHF): need for a high daily dose of 800 mg. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2006;21(4):1019–1023.
  • Yagasaki K, Gando S, Matsuda N, et al. Pharmacokinetics and the most suitable dosing regimen of fluconazole in critically ill patients receiving continuous hemodiafiltration. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29(10):1844–1848.
  • Patel K, Roberts JA, Lipman J, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in critically ill patients receiving continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration: using Monte Carlo simulations to predict doses for specified pharmacodynamic targets. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55(12):5868–5873.
  • Kiser TH, Fish DN, Aquilante CL, et al. Evaluation of sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin (SBECD) accumulation and voriconazole pharmacokinetics in critically ill patients undergoing continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care. 2015;19(1):1–9.
  • González de Molina FJ, Martínez-Alberici M, Ferrer R. Treatment with echinocandins during continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care. 2014;18(2):218.
  • Honore PM, De Bels D, Gutierrez LB, et al. Optimizing micafungin dosing in critically ill patients: what about extracorporeal therapies? Crit Care. 2018;22(1):289.
  • Bellomo R, McEvoy S, Lo S K, et al. Effect of baseline serum albumin concentration on outcome of resuscitation with albumin or saline in patients in intensive care units: analysis of data from the saline versus albumin fluid evaluation (SAFE) study. Br Med J. 2006;333(7577):1044–1046.
  • Ulldemolins M, Roberts JA, Rello J, et al. The effects of hypoalbuminaemia on optimizing antibacterial dosing in critically ill patients. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2011;50(2):99–110.
  • Chatelon J, Cortegiani A, Hammad E, et al. Choosing the Right Antifungal Agent in ICU Patients. Adv Ther. 2019;36(12):3308–3320.
  • Budingen FV, Gonzalez D, Tucker AN, et al. Relevance of liver failure for anti-infective agents: from pharmacokinetic alterations to dosage adjustments. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2014;2(1):17–42.
  • Gustot T, Ter HR, Brauns E, et al. Caspofungin dosage adjustments are not required for patients with Child-Pugh B or C cirrhosis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(9):2493–2496.
  • Mulla H, Peek GJ, Harvey C, et al. Oseltamivir pharmacokinetics in critically ill adults receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2013;41(1):66–73.
  • Noel ZR, Bastin MLT, Montgomery AA, et al. Comparison of high-dose versus standard dose oseltamivir in critically ill patients with influenza. J Intensive Care Med. 2017;32(10):574–577.
  • Bouglé A, Dujardin O, Lepère V, et al. PHARMECMO: therapeutic drug monitoring and adequacy of current dosing regimens of antibiotics in patients on extracorporeal life support. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2019;38(5):493–497.
  • Abdul-Aziz MH, Shekar K, Roberts JA. Antimicrobial therapy during ECMO – customised dosing with therapeutic drug monitoring: the way to go? Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2019;38(5):451–453.
  • Cheng V, Abdul-Aziz MH, Roberts JA, et al. Optimising drug dosing in patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Thorac Dis. 2018;10(Suppl 5):S629–41.
  • Shekar K, Fraser JF, Taccone SS, et al. The combined effects of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and renal replacement therapy on meropenem pharmacokinetics: a matched cohort study. Crit Care. 2014;18(1):1–9.
  • Watt KM, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Williams DC, et al. Antifungal extraction by the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuit. J Extra Corpor Technol. 2017;49(3):150–159.
  • Spriet I, Annaert P, Meersseman P, et al. Pharmacokinetics of caspofungin and voriconazole in critically ill patients during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;63(4):767–770.
  • Branick K, Taylor MJ, Trump MW, et al. Apparent interference with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation by liposomal amphotericin B in a patient with disseminated blastomycosis receiving continuous renal replacement therapy. Am J Heal Pharm. 2019;76(11):810–813.
  • Thongprayoon C, Cheungpasitporn W, Lertjitbanjong P, et al. Incidence and impact of acute kidney injury in patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a meta-analysis. J Clin Med. 2019;8(7):981.
  • Larsen FS, Schmidt LE, Bernsmeier C, et al. High-volume plasma exchange in patients with acute liver failure: an open randomised controlled trial. J Hepatol [Internet]. 2016;64(1):69–78.
  • Cheng CW, Hendrickson JE, Tormey CA, et al. Therapeutic plasma exchange and its impact on drug levels: an ACLPS critical review. Am J Clin Pathol. 2017;148(3):190–198.
  • Alet P, Lortholary O, Fauvelle F, et al. Pharmacokinetics of teicoplanin during plasma exchange. Clin Microbiol Infect. 1999;5(4):213–218.
  • Konishi H, Fukushima K, Saotome T, et al. Impact of plasma exchange on pharmacokinetic disposition of micafungin. Ther Apher Dial. 2010;14(3):358–363.
  • Etzel JV, Nafziger AN, Bertino JS. Variation in the pharmacokinetics of gentamicin and tobramycin in patients with pleural effusions and hypoalbuminemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992;36(3):679–681.
  • Adnan S, Li JX, Wallis SC, et al. Pharmacokinetics of meropenem and piperacillin in critically ill patients with indwelling surgical drains. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013;42(1):90–93.
  • Valenza G, Seifert H, Decker-Burgard S, et al. Comparative Activity of Carbapenem Testing (COMPACT) study in Germany. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2012;39(3):255–258.
  • Bassetti M, Poulakou G, Ruppe E, et al. Antimicrobial resistance in the next 30 years, humankind, bugs and drugs: a visionary approach. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(10):1464–1475.
  • Kuti JL, Dandekar PK, Nightingale CH, et al. Use of Monte Carlo simulation to design an optimized pharmacodynamic dosing strategy for meropenem. J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;43(10):1116–1123.
  • Song X, Wu Y, Cao L, et al. Is meropenem as a monotherapy truly incompetent for meropenem-nonsusceptible bacterial strains? A pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling with monte carlo simulation. Front Microbiol. 2019;29(10):2777.
  • Tumbarello M, Trecarichi EM, De Rosa FG, et al. Infections caused by KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae: differences in therapy and mortality in a multicentre study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70(7):2133–2143.
  • Wong G, Sime FB, Lipman J, et al. How do we use therapeutic drug monitoring to improve outcomes from severe infections in critically ill patients? BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14(1):1–11.
  • Guilhaumou R, Benaboud S, Bennis Y, et al. Optimization of the treatment with beta-lactam antibiotics in critically ill patients - guidelines from the french society of pharmacology and therapeutics (Société Française de Pharmacologie et Thérapeutique - SFPT) and the French society of anaesthesia. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):1–20.
  • Tsai D, Lipman J, Roberts JA. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic considerations for the optimization of antimicrobial delivery in the critically ill. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2015;21(5):412–420.
  • Chapuis TM, Giannoni E, Majcherczyk PA, et al. Prospective monitoring of cefepime in intensive care unit adult patients. Crit Care. 2010;14(2):1–10.
  • Roberts JA, Kirkpatrick CMJ, Roberts MS, et al. Meropenem dosing in critically ill patients with sepsis and without renal dysfunction: intermittent bolus versus continuous administration? Monte Carlo dosing simulations and subcutaneous tissue distribution. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64(1):142–150.
  • Roberts JA, Kirkpatrick CMJ, Roberts MS, et al. First-dose and steady-state population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of piperacillin by continuous or intermittent dosing in critically ill patients with sepsis. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2010;35(2):156–163.
  • Dulhunty JM, Roberts JA, Davis JS, et al. Continuous infusion of beta-lactam antibiotics in severe sepsis: a multicenter double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(2):236–244.
  • Roberts JA, Abdul-Aziz MH, Davis JS, et al. Continuous versus intermittent β-lactam infusion in severe sepsis: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from randomized trials. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;194(6):681–691.
  • Lipman J, Brett SJ, De Waele JJ, et al. A protocol for a phase 3 multicentre randomised controlled trial of continuous versus intermittent β-lactam antibiotic infusion in critically ill patients with sepsis: BLING III. Crit Care Resusc. 2019;21(1):63–68.
  • Physiology A, Physiology A, Noso PN, et al. High-dose vancomycin therapy for methicillin-resistant. Nursing (Lond). 2006;166:2138–2144.
  • Kim SW. Is therapeutic drug monitoring of teicoplanin useful? Infect Chemother. 2014;46(1):64–65.
  • Harding I, Sorgel F. Comparative pharmacokinetics of teicoplanin and vancomycin. J Chemother. 2000;12(Suppl 5):15–20. December.
  • Moise-broder PA, Forrest A, Birmingham MC, et al. Pharmacodynamics of vancomycin and other antimicrobials in patients with staphylococcus aureus lower respiratory tract infections. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2004;43(13):925–942.
  • Rybak MJ, Le J, Lodise TP, et al. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin for serious methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: a revised consensus guideline and review by the American society of health-system pharmacists, the infectious diseases society of America, the pediatric infectious diseases society, and the society of infectious diseases pharmacists. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2020 Mar 19. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Cataldo MA, Tacconelli E, Grilli E, et al. Continuous versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin for the treatment of gram-positive infections: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67(1):17–24.
  • Chu Y, Luo Y, Quan X, et al. Intermittent vs. continuous vancomycin infusion for gram-positive infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Public Health. 2019;1–7. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Cristallini S, Hites M, Kabtouri H, et al. New regimen for continuous infusion of vancomycin in critically ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60(8):4750–4756.
  • van Herendael B, Jeurissen A, Tulkens PM, et al. Continuous infusion of antibiotics in the critically ill: the new holy grail for beta-lactams and vancomycin? Ann Intensive Care. 2012;2(1):1.
  • Krause KM, Serio AW, Kane TR, et al. Aminoglycosides: an Overview. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 2016;6(6):a027029.
  • Dager WE. Aminoglycoside pharmacokinetics: volume of distribution in specific adult patient subgroups. Ann Pharmacother. 1994;28(7–8):944–951.
  • Allou N, Allyn J, Levy Y, et al. Assessment of the National French recommendations regarding the dosing regimen of 8 mg/kg of gentamicin in patients hospitalised in intensive care units. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2016;35(5):331–335.
  • Downes KJ, Dong M, Fukuda T, et al. Urinary kidney injury biomarkers and tobramycin clearance among children and young adults with cystic fibrosis: a population pharmacokinetic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017;72(1):254–260.
  • Gálvez R, Luengo C, Cornejo R, et al. Higher than recommended amikacin loading doses achieve pharmacokinetic targets without associated toxicity. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011;38(2):146–151.
  • Muller AE, Huttner B, Huttner A. Therapeutic drug monitoring of beta-lactams and other antibiotics in the intensive care unit: which agents, which patients and which infections? Drugs. 2018;78(4):439–451.
  • Roberts JA, Lipman J. Pharmacokinetic issues for antibiotics in the critically ill patient. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(3):840–851.
  • Nation RL, Garonzik SM, Thamlikitkul V, et al. Dosing guidance for intravenous colistin in critically ill patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(5):565–571.
  • Garonzik SM, Li J, Thamlikitkul V, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of colistin methanesulfonate and formed colistin in critically ill patients from a multicenter study provide dosing suggestions for various categories of patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55(7):3284–3294.
  • He H, Li JC, Nation RL, et al. Pharmacokinetics of four different brands of colistimethate and formed colistin in rats. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68(10):2311–2317.
  • The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. Breakpoint tables for interpretation of MICs and zone diameters. Version 10.0; 2020 [cited 2020 Feb 12]. http://www.eucast.org.http://www.eucast.org.
  • Benko R, Matuz M, Doro P, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of levofloxacin in critically ill patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2007;30(2):162–168.
  • Thomas JK, Forrest A, Bhavnani SM, et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42(3):521–527.
  • Welshman IR, Sisson TA, Jungbluth GL, et al. Linezolid absolute bioavailability and the effect of food on oral bioavailability. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2001;22(3):91–97.
  • Whitehouse T, Cepeda JA, Shulman R, et al. Pharmacokinetic studies of linezolid and teicoplanin in the critically ill. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005;55(3):333–340.
  • Adembri C, Fallani S, Cassetta MI, et al. Linezolid pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profile in critically ill septic patients: intermittent versus continuous infusion. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2008;31(2):122–129.
  • Lewis RE. Current concepts in antifungal pharmacology. Mayo Clin Proc. 2011;86(8):805–817.
  • Weiler S, Seger C, Pfisterer H, et al. Pharmacokinetics of caspofungin in critically ill patients on continuous renal replacement therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57(8):4053–4057.
  • Maseda E, Grau S, Villagran MJ, et al. Micafungin pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic adequacy for the treatment of invasive candidiasis in critically ill patients on continuous venovenous haemofiltration. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69(6):1624–1632.
  • Maseda E, Grau S, Luque S, et al. Population pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of micafungin against Candida species in obese, critically ill, and morbidly obese critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):1–9.
  • Brüggemann RJM, Middel-Baars V, De Lange DW, et al. Pharmacokinetics of anidulafungin in critically ill intensive care unit patients with suspected or proven invasive fungal infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2017;61(2):1–8.
  • Andes D, Marchillo K, Stamstad T, et al. In vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a new triazole, voriconazole, in a murine candidiasis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(10):3165–3169.
  • Brüggemann RJM, Alffenaar JC, Blijlevens NMA, et al. Clinical relevance of the pharmacokinetic interactions of azole antifungal drugs with other coadministered agents. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(10):1441–1458.
  • Lilly CM, Welch VL, Mayer T, et al. Evaluation of intravenous voriconazole in patients with compromised renal function. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13(1):1.
  • Mehta NM, Halwick DR, Dodson BL, et al. Potential drug sequestration during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: results from an ex vivo experiment. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33(6):1018–1024.
  • Alobaid AS, Wallis SC, Jarrett P, et al. Effect of obesity on the population pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in critically Ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60(11):6550–6557.
  • Groll AH, Rijnders BJA, Walsh TJ, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and efficacy of liposomal amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68(Suppl 4):S260–74.
  • Mouton JW, Muller AE, Canton R, et al. MIC-based dose adjustment: facts and fables. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(3):564–568.
  • Reyes J, Aguilar AC, Caicedo A. Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae: microbiology key points for clinical practice. Int J Gen Med. 2019;12:437–446.
  • Jager NGL, van Hest RM, Lipman J, et al. Antibiotic exposure at the site of infection: principles and assessment of tissue penetration. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2019 Jul;12(7):623–634.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.