Client De Facto States and Quasi-Patrons: Insights from the Relationship Between Somaliland and Ethiopia

References

• Abbink, J. (2009). The Ethiopian Second Republic and the fragile “social contract”. Africa Spectrum, 44(2), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/000203970904400201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Africanews. (2018, November 21). Ogaden rebels return to Ethiopia from Eritrea, Jijiga celebrates. https://www.africanews.com/2018/11/21/ogaden-rebels-return-to-ethiopia-from-eritrea-jijiga-celebrates/
   Google Scholar
• Ahram, A. I. (2011). Proxy warriors: The rise and fall of state-sponsored militias. Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Al Jazeera. (2021, November 24). Ethiopia’s PM has gone to the battlefront: State-affiliated media. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/24/ethiopia-pm-has-gone-to-wars-frontlines-state-affiliated-media
   Google Scholar
• Allison, S. (2018, March 12). Port deal underscores Djibouti’s reliance on Ethiopia. ISS Africa. https://issafrica.org/iss-today/port-deal-underscores-djiboutis-reliance-on-ethiopia
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, L. (2011). Reintegrating unrecognized states: Internationalizing frozen conflicts. In N. Caspersen & G. Stansfield (Eds.), Unrecognized states in the international system (pp. 183–206). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Askar, A. (2020, August 10). Taiwan-Somaliland relations: Impact on the future of Chinese influence in the Horn of Africa. The Emirates Policy Center. https://epc.ae/topic/taiwan-somaliland-relations-impact-on-the-future-of-chinese-influence-in-the-horn-of-africa
   Google Scholar
• Bar-Siman-Tov, Y. (1984). The strategy of war by proxy. Cooperation and Conflict, 19(4), 263–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/001083678401900405
   Google Scholar
• BBC. (2010, September 13). Somaliland forces “surround ONLF rebels near Ethiopia”. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-11287682
   Google Scholar
• Bercovitch, J. (1991). Superpowers and client states: Analysing relations and patterns of influence. In M. Efrat & J. Bercovitch (Eds.), Superpowers and client states in the Middle East: The imbalance of influence (pp. 9–32). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Berg, E. & Vits, K. (2020). Exploring de facto state agency: Negotiation power, international engagement and patronage. In G. Baldacchino & A. Wivel (Eds.), Handbook on the politics of small states (pp. 379–394). Edward Elgar Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Berg, E. & Yüksel, İY. (2022). Holding back or pushing forward? Patron-client relations and elite navigations in Northern Cyprus. Ethnopolitics, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449057.2022.2094067
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradbury, M. (2008). Becoming Somaliland. Progressio.
   Google Scholar
• Cannon, B. J. & Rossiter, A. (2017). Ethiopia, Berbera port and the shifting balance of power in the Horn of Africa. Rising Powers Quarterly, 2(4), 7–29.
   Google Scholar
• Carney, C. P. (1989). International patron-client relationships: A conceptual framework. Studies in Comparative International Development, 24(2), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02687171
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspersen, N. (2008). Between puppets and independent actors: Kin-state involvement in the conflicts in Bosnia, Croatia and Nagorno Karabakh. Ethnopolitics, 7(4), 357–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449050701618546
   Google Scholar
• Caspersen, N. (2012). Unrecognized states: The struggle for sovereignty in the modern international system. Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Caspersen, N. (2015). Degrees of legitimacy: Ensuring internal and external support in the absence of recognition. Geoforum; Journal of Physical, Human, and Regional Geosciences, 66, 184–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.10.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhury, D. R. (2021, October 1). China widens presence in Indian Ocean through massive inroads in Djibouti. The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/china-widens-presence-in-indian-ocean-through-massive-inroads-in-djibouti/articleshow/86676234.cms?from=mdr
   Google Scholar
• Ciorciari, J. D. (2015). A Chinese model for patron-client relations? The Sino-Cambodian partnership. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 15(2), 245–278. https://doi.org/10.1093/irap/lcu021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CNN. (2000, November 12). Somaliland, Ethiopia sign trade accord. http://edition.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/11/12/somaliland.accord.reut/
   Google Scholar
• Comai, G. (2018a). Conceptualising post-Soviet de facto states as small dependent jurisdictions. Ethnopolitics, 17(2), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449057.2017.1393210
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comai, G. (2018b). Developing a new research agenda on post-Soviet de facto states. In A. Ferrari & C. Frappi (Eds.), Armenia, Caucaso e Asia Centrale (pp. 145–159). Università Ca’ Foscari.
   Google Scholar
• The Economist. (2012, April 21). Ocean ahoy! Losing its coast has not stopped Ethiopia developing its shipping. https://www.economist.com/business/2012/04/21/ocean-ahoy
   Google Scholar
• Economist Intelligence Unit. (2001). Country report: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti. EUI.
   Google Scholar
• Economist Intelligence Unit. (2020, August 19). First stage of Somaliland’s Berbera port expansion complete. https://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=690040652
   Google Scholar
• Ekici, T. & Özdemir, Y. (2021). Turkish foreign aid to Northern Cyprus: A mother’s blessing or curse? Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 21(3), 437–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2021.1939378
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder, C. (2021). Somaliland’s authoritarian turn: Oligarchic-corporate power and the political economy of de facto states. International Affairs, 97(6), 1749–1765. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiab174
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabricius, P. (2020, June 5). Abiy helps Somaliland put more facts on the ground. ISS Africa. https://issafrica.org/iss-today/abiy-helps-somaliland-put-more-facts-on-the-ground
   Google Scholar
• Fikadu, B. (2019, November 23). Somaliland expresses concerns over Ethiopia’s regional policy. The Reporter Ethiopia. https://www.thereporterethiopia.com/article/somaliland-expresses-concerns-over-ethiopias-regional-policy
   Google Scholar
• Flightradar 24. (2021, October 10). Hargeisa airport. https://www.flightradar24.com/data/airports/hga
   Google Scholar
• Florea, A. (2014). De facto states in international politics (1945–2011): A new data set. International Interactions, 40(5), 788–811. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2014.915543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Florea, A. (2017). De facto states: Survival and disappearance (1945-2011). International Studies Quarterly, 61(2), 337–351. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqw049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foreign Ministry of Somaliland. (2016). Foreign policy: Republic of Somaliland. https://web.archive.org/web/20161210152520/http://www.slforeign.com/assets/mofa-ic—rep.-of-somaliland-foreign-policy.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Frear, T. (2015). The foreign policy options of a small unrecognised state: The case of Abkhazia. Caucasus Survey, 1(2), 83–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761199.2014.11417293
   Google Scholar
• Gandrup, T. (2016). Enter and exit: Everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport. Danish Institute for International Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Gasiorowski, M. J. (1991). U.S. foreign policy and the Shah: Building a client state in Iran. Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Geldenhuys, D. (2009). Contested states in world politics. Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Getachew, A. (2020, August 7). Ethiopia objects to Egyptian base plans in Somaliland. Anadolu Agency. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/ethiopia-objects-to-egyptian-base-plans-in-somaliland/1934835
   Google Scholar
• Government of Somaliland. (2015). The recognition of Somaliland: Growing international engagement and backing. https://recognition.somalilandgov.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/The-recognition-of-Somaliland-Growing-international-engagement-and-backing.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Habtu, A. (2004). Ethnic pluralism as an organizing principle of the Ethiopian Federation. Dialectical Anthropology, 28(2), 91–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10624-004-9328-9
   Google Scholar
• Hagmann, T. (2014). Talking peace in the Ogaden: The search for an end to conflict in the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. Rift Valley Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Hersi, M. F. (2020, September 7). Somaliland’s new cold war diplomacy. The Africa Report. https://www.theafricareport.com/40745/somalilands-new-cold-war-diplomacy/
   Google Scholar
• Hoehne, M. V. (2009). Mimesis and mimicry in dynamics of state and identity formation in Northern Somalia. Africa, 79(2), 252–281. https://doi.org/10.3366/E0001972009000710
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horton, M. (2020, August 14). No foothold for al-Shabaab in Somaliland. The Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor. https://jamestown.org/program/no-foothold-for-al-shabaab-in-somaliland/
   Google Scholar
• Huliaras, A. (2002). The viability of Somaliland: Internal constraints and regional geopolitics. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 20(2), 157–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/0258900022000005151
   Google Scholar
• Huliaras, A. & Kalantzakos, S. (2017). The Gulf States and the Horn of Africa: A new hinterland? Middle East Policy, 24(4), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12308
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group. (2020, August 6). Somalia-Somaliland: A halting embrace of dialogue. https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/somalia/somalia-somaliland-halting-embrace-dialogue
   Google Scholar
• Isachenko, D. (2012). The making of informal states: Statebuilding in Northern Cyprus and Transdniestria. Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Ishiyama, J. (2021). Is ethnonationalism growing in Ethiopia and will it lead to the dissolution of the country? Evidence from the World Value Survey 2007–2020. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 56(5), 1024–1035. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096211007650
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jhazbhay, I. D. (2007). Somaliland: Post-war nation-building and international relations, 1991–2006 [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of the Witwatersrand.
   Google Scholar
• Jhazbhay, I. D. (2009). Somaliland: An African struggle for nationhood and international recognition. Institute for Global Dialogue & South African Institute of International Affairs.
   Google Scholar
• Karlén, N., Rauta, V., Salehyan, I., Mumford, A., San-Akca, B., Stark, A., Wyss, M., Moghadam, A., Duursma, A., Tamm, H., Jenne, E. K., Popovic, M., Siroky, D. S., Meier, V., Chinchilla, A., Rickard, K. & Spatafora, G. (2021). Forum: Conflict delegation in civil wars. International Studies Review, 23(4), 2048–2078. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viab053
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kłosowicz, R. (2015). The role of Ethiopia in the regional security complex of the Horn of Africa. The Ethiopian Journal of Social Sciences and Language Studies (EJSSLS), 2(2), 85–99.
   Google Scholar
• Kolodziej, E. A. & Kanet, R. E. (1989). The limits of Soviet power in the developing world: Thermidor in the revolutionary struggle. Macmillan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kolstø, P. (2006). The sustainability and future of unrecognized quasi-states. Journal of Peace Research, 43(6), 723–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343306068102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolstø, P. (2020). Biting the hand that feeds them? Abkhazia-Russia client-patron relations. Post-Soviet Affairs, 36(2), 140–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/1060586X.2020.1712987
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolstø, P. & Blakkisrud, H. (2017). Regime development and patron–client relations: The 2016 Transnistrian presidential elections and the “Russia factor”. Demokratizatsiya, 25(4), 503–528.
   Google Scholar
• Kopeček, V. (2020). Factors of de facto state’s sustainability. In T. Hoch & V. Kopeček (Eds.), De facto states in Eurasia (pp. 159–167). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kosienkowski, M. (2012). Continuity and change in Transnistria’s foreign policy after the 2011 presidential elections. The Catholic University of Lublin Publishing House.
   Google Scholar
• Kosienkowski, M. (2017). The Gagauz Republic: An autonomism-driven de facto state. The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, 44(3), 292–313. https://doi.org/10.1163/18763324-20171233
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosienkowski, M. (2020). The patron-client relationship between Russia and Transnistria. In T. Hoch & V. Kopeček (Eds.), De facto states in Eurasia (pp. 183–207). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kursani, S. (2021). Reconsidering the contested state in post-1945 international relations: An ontological approach. International Studies Review, 23(3), 752–778. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viaa073
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyris, G. (2015). The Europeanisation of contested statehood: The EU in northern Cyprus. Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Levy, J. S. (2008). Case studies: Types, designs, and logics of inference. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 25(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/07388940701860318
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsai, V. & Szalai, M. (2021). The “borderlandization” of the Horn of Africa in relation to the Gulf Region, and the effects on Somalia. Journal of Borderlands Studies, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/08865655.2021.1884118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MENAFN. (2018, September 9). Somaliland: Zambia accepts Somaliland passport. https://menafn.com/1097407563/Somaliland-Zambia-accepts-Somaliland-passport
   Google Scholar
• MENAFN. (2021, September 4). Somaliland, Ethiopia discuss cross-border security, immigration issues. https://menafn.com/1102741042/Somaliland-Ethiopia-Discuss-Cross-border-Security-Immigration-Issues
   Google Scholar
• Miarka, A. (2022). Patron-client relations in the post-Soviet area in the 21st century—The case study of Armenia and the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Nationalities Papers, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2022.26
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohamoud-Barawani, M. A. (2017). Somaliland–Ethiopia relationship: An initiative for regional economic integration and deepening political stability in the Horn of Africa. International Journal of Current Research, 9(7), 55300–55308.
   Google Scholar
• Mumford, A. (2013). Proxy warfare. Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Musa, A. M., Wasonga, O. V. & Mtimet, N. (2020). Factors influencing livestock export in Somaliland’s terminal markets. Pastoralism, 10(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-019-0155-7
   Google Scholar
• Newnham, R. (2020). Russia and Belarus: Economic linkage in a patron-client relationship. Journal of Belarusian Studies, 9(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.30965/20526512-12340002
   Google Scholar
• Ostovar, A. (2018). Iran, its clients, and the future of the Middle East: The limits of religion. International Affairs, 94(6), 1237–1255. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiy185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owtram, F. (2011). The foreign policies of unrecognized states. In N. Caspersen & G. Stansfield (Eds.), Unrecognized states in the international system (pp. 128–143). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, D., Comai, G. & Tsurtsumia-Zurabashvili, A. (2016). The secret lives of unrecognised states: Internal dynamics, external relations, and counter-recognition strategies. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 27(3), 440–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2016.1151654
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palani, K. (2022). Kurdistan’s de facto statehood: A new explanatory framework. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Pegg, S. (1998). International society and the de facto state. Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Pegg, S. & Kolstø, P. (2015). Somaliland: Dynamics of internal legitimacy and (lack of) external sovereignty. Geoforum; Journal of Physical, Human, and Regional Geosciences, 66, 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.09.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, S. (2020). When there was no aid: War and peace in Somaliland. Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pijović, N. (2013). Seceding but not succeeding: African international relations and Somaliland’s lacking international recognition. Croatian International Relations Review, 19(68), 73–105. https://doi.org/10.2478/cirr-2013-0004
   Google Scholar
• Rafaat, A. (2018). Kurdistan in Iraq: The evolution of a quasi-state. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rauta, V. (2021a). ‘Proxy war’ – A reconceptualisation. Civil Wars, 23(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2021.1860578
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rauta, V. (2021b). Framers, founders, and reformers: Three generations of proxy war research. Contemporary Security Policy, 42(1), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2020.1800240
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudincová, K. (2016). Ethiopian foreign policy in the Horn of Africa: Informal relations with Somaliland and their possible future development. Politeja, 13(3 (42)), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.13.2016.42.13
   Google Scholar
• Salehyan, I. (2009). Rebels without borders: Transnational insurgencies in world politics. Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Salehyan, I., Siroky, D. & Wood, R. M. (2014). External rebel sponsorship and civilian abuse: A principal-agent analysis of wartime atrocities. International Organization, 68(3), 633–661. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002081831400006X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seth, M. J. (2022). Not on the map: The peculiar histories of de facto states. Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Shoemaker, C. C. & Spanier, J. W. (1984). Patron-client state relationships: Multilateral crises in the nuclear age. Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Sosnowski, P. (2022). Path dependence from proxy agent to de facto state: A history of ‘strategic exploitation’ of the Kurds as a context of the Iraqi Kurdistan security policy. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 16, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.11576/ijcv-5688
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spanke, T. (2019). Nurturing dependence: The role of patron states in the state and institution building processes of de facto states [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The London School of Economics and Political Science.
   Google Scholar
• Stepputat, F. & Hagmann, T. (2019). Politics of circulation: The makings of the Berbera corridor in Somali East Africa. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 37(5), 794–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775819847485
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toomla, R. (2014). De facto states in the international system: Conditions for (in-)formal engagement. University of Tartu Press.
   Google Scholar
• Turhan, Y. (2021). The hydro-political dilemma in Africa water geopolitics: The case of the Nile river basin. African Security Review, 30(1), 66–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2020.1844775
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNPO. (2014, September 24). Somaliland: Norway to support stability and management of natural resources. https://unpo.org/article/17548
   Google Scholar
• Veenendaal, W. P. (2017). Analyzing the foreign policy of microstates: The relevance of the international patron-client model. Foreign Policy Analysis, 13(3), 561–577. https://doi.org/10.1111/fpa.12068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walls, M. & Kibble, S. (2010). Beyond polarity: Negotiating a hybrid state in Somaliland. Africa Spectrum, 45(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/000203971004500102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster, J. A. (2007). Parliamentary majorities and national minorities: Moldova’s accommodation of the Gagauz [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. (2016). Somaliland’s private sector at a crossroads: Political economy and policy choices for prosperity and job creation. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/22583/9781464804915.pdf
   Google Scholar