References
- Global HIV & AIDS Statistics—2018 Fact Sheet. [cited 2018 Sep 20]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet
- UNAIDS—Global AIDS Update 2016. [cited 2018 Sep 20]. Available from: http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/globalAIDSupdate2016_en.pdfdefault/files/media_asset/UNAIDS_FactSheet_en.pdf
- Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e81355.
- Vella S. End of AIDS on the horizon, but innovation needed to end HIV. Lancet HIV. 2015;2:e74–e75.
- Deeks SG, Lewin SR, Havlir DV. The end of AIDS: HIV infection as a chronic disease. Lancet. 2013;382:1525–1533.
- Soriano V, Barreiro P, Sherman KE. The changing epidemiology of liver disease in HIV patients. AIDS Rev. 2013;15:25–31.
- Srinivasa S, Grinspoon SK. Mechanisms in endocrinology: metabolic and body composition effects of newer antiretrovirals in HIV-infected patients. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014;170:R185–R202.
- Smith CJ, Ryom L, Weber R, et al. Trends in underlying causes of death in people with HIV from 1999 to 2011 (D: A:D): a multicohort collaboration. Lancet. 2014;384:241–248.
- Kaspar MB, Sterling RK. Mechanism of liver disease in patients infected with HIV. BMJ Open Gastroenterol. 2017;4:e1–e7.
- Mastroianni CM, Lichtner M, Mascia C, et al. Molecular mechanisms of liver fibrosis in HIV/HCV coinfection. Int J Mol Sci. 2014;15:9184–9208.
- Pembroke T, Deschenes M, Lebouché B, et al. Hepatic steatosis progress faster in HIV mono-infected than HIV/HCV co-infected patients and is associated with liver fibrosis. J Hepatol. 2017;67:801–808.
- Verna EC. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in patients with HIV. Lancet. 2017;2:211–223.
- Vodkin I, Valasek MA, Bettencourt R, et al. Clinical, biochemical and histological differences between HIV-associated NAFLD and primary NAFLD: a case-control study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014;41:368–378.
- Sherman KE, Peters MG, Thomas D. Human immunodeficiency virus and liver disease: a comprehensive update. Hepatol Commun. 2017;1:987–1001.
- Lo Re V 3rd, Wang L, Devine S, et al. Hepatic decompensation in patients with HIV/Hepatitis B virus (HBV)/Hepatitis C virus (HCV) triple infection versus HIV/HCV coinfection and the effect of anti-HBV nucleos(t)ide therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1027–1031.
- Worma SW, Friis-Møllera N. High prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in HIV-infected patients: impact of different definitions of the metabolic syndrome. AIDS. 2010;24:427–435.
- National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Health Interview Statistics. Crude and age-adjusted percentage of civilian, noninstitutionalized adults with diagnosed diabetes, United States, 1980–2010. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Ed. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Diabetes Translation; 2012.
- Ranasinghe P, Mathangasinghe Y, Jayawardena R, et al. Prevalence and trends of metabolic syndrome among adults in the Asia-pacific region: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2017;17:101.
- Cuevas A, Alvarez V, Carrasco F. Epidemic of metabolic syndrome in Latin America. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2011;18:134–138.
- Friedman SL, Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Rinella M, et al. Mechanisms of NAFLD development and therapeutic strategies. Nat Med. 2018;24:908–922.
- Calza L, Colangeli V, Magistrelli E, et al. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in HIV-infected patients naive to antiretroviral therapy or receiving a first-line treatment. HIV Clin Trials. 2017;18:110–117.
- Bosho DD, Dube L, Mega TA, et al. Prevalence and predictors of metabolic syndrome among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWHIV). Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2018;10:10. DOI:10.1186/s13098-018-0312-y
- Tesfaye DY, Kinde S, Medhin G, et al. Burden of metabolic syndrome among HIV-infected patients in Southern Ethiopia. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev. 2014;8:102–107.
- Maurice JB, Patel A, Scott AJ, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in HIV-monoinfection. AIDS. 2017;31:1621–1632.
- Prioreschi A, Munthali RJ, Soepnel L, et al. Incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus with HIV infection in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2017;7:e013953.
- Duncan AD, Goff LM, Peters BS. Type 2 diabetes prevalence and its risk factors in HIV: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE. 2018;13:e0194199.
- Álvaro-Meca A, Jiménez-García R, Jimenez-Trujillo I, et al. Fifteen-year trends in the prevalence of diabetes among hospitalized HIV-infected patients in spain (1997–2012). PLoS ONE. 2016;11:e0161953.
- Ahmed MH, Hussian NE, Malik A, et al. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and HIV/AIDS: a new way of modulation of cardiovascular risk. AIDS Rev. 2017;19:3–10.
- Bonfanti P, Giannattasio C, Ricci E, et al. HIV and metabolic syndrome: a comparison with the general population. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:426–431.
- Méndez-Sánchez N, Cruz-Ramon VC, Ramírez-Pérez OL, et al. New aspects of lipotoxicity in Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19:1–21.
- Sebastiani G, Rollet-Kurhajec KC, Pexos C, et al. Incidence and predictors of hepatic steatosis and fibrosis by serum biomarkers in a large cohort of human immunodeficiency virus mono-infected patient. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:1–8.
- Tafesh ZH, Verna EC. Managing nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients living with HIV. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2017;30:12–20.
- Day C, James O. Steatohepatitis: A tale of two ¨hits¨? Gastroenterol. 1998;114:842–845.
- Berson A, De Beco V, Lettéron P, et al. Steatohepati-tis-inducing drugs cause mitochondrial dysfunction and lipid peroxidation in rat hepatocytes. Gastroenterology. 1998;114:764–774.
- Garcia-Mendez JO. Manifestaciones digestivas de la infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH). In: Gastroenterología por Nahum Méndez-Sánchez. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. Mexcio City, Mexico: McGrawHill; 2018. p. 245–250. ISBN 9781456260279.
- Funderburg NT, Mehta NN. Lipid abnormalities and inflammation in HIV infection. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2016;13:218–225.
- Lombardi R, Leverb R, Smith C, et al. Liver test abnormalities in patients with HIV mono-infection: assessment with simple noninvasive fibrosis markers. Ann Gastroenterol. 2017;30:349–356.
- Vallet-Pichard A, Mallet V, Pol S. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and HIV infection. Semin Liver Dis. 2012;32:158–166.
- Fiorenza CG, Chou S, Mantzoros C. Lipodistrophy: pathophysiology and advances in treatmen. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010;7:137–150.
- Platt L, Easterbrook P, Gower E, et al. Prevalence and burden of HCV co-infection in people living with HIV: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:797–808.
- Pokorska-Śpiewak M, Stańska-Perka A, Popielska J, et al. Prevalence and predictors of liver disease in HIV-infected children and adolescents. Sci Rep. 2017;7:12309.
- Crane M, Iser D, Lewin SR. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and the liver. World J Hepatol. 2012;4:91–98.
- Agarwal N, Oplt T, Iyer D, et al. Transgenic expression of HIV-1 accessory protein viral protein R (Vpr) induces hepatic steatosis. In Proceedings of the Endocrine Society’s 94th Annual Meeting and Expo; 2016 Jun 23–26; Houston, TX.
- Agarwal N, Lyer D, Gabbi C, et al. HIV-1 viral protein R (Vpr) induces fatty liver in mice via LXR-α and PPARα dysregulation: implications for HIV-specific pathogenesis of NAFLD. Sci Rep. 2017;13362:1–15.
- Peters JM, Shah YM, Gonzalez FJ. The role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in carcinogenesis and chemoprevention. Nat Rev Cancer. 2012;12:181–195.
- A-Gonzalez N, Castrillo A. Liver X receptors as regulators of macrophage inflammatory and metabolic pathways. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1812:982–994.
- Bose SK, Ray R. Hepatitis C virus infection and insulin resistance. World J Diabetes. 2014;5:52–58.
- Jorgensen SB, O’Neill HM. Deletion of skeletal muscle SOCS3 prevents insulin resistance in obesity. Diabetes. 2013;62:56–64.
- Sun XJ, Rothenberg P, Kahn CR, et al. Structure of the insulin receptor substrate IRS-1 defines a unique signal transduction protein. Nature. 1991;352:73–77.
- Quinn J, Astemborski J, Mehta SH, et al. HIV/HCV co-infection, liver disease progression, and age-related IGF-1 decline. Pathog Immun. 2017;2:50–59.
- Kralj D, Jukic LV, Stojsavljević S, et al. Hepatitis C virus, insulin resistance, and steatosis. J Clin Tranl Hepatol. 2016;4:66–75.
- Hezode C, Roudot-Thoraval F, Zafrani ES, et al. Different mechanisms of steatosis in hepatitis C virus genotypes 1 and 3 infections. J Viral Hepat. 2004;11:455–458.
- Bruno R, Galastri S, Sacchi P, et al. Gp120 modulates the biology of human hepatic stellate cells: A link between HIV infection and liver fibrogenesis. Gut. 2010;59:513e–520e.
- Viswanathan S, Detels R, Mehta S, et al. Level of adherence and HIV RNA suppression in the current era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). AIDS Behay. 2016;19:601–611.
- Bezabhe W, Chalmers L, Bereznicki L, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and virologic failure. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95:e3361.
- Lakshmi S, Alcaide M, Palacio AM, et al. Improving HCV cure rates in HIV coinfected patients: a real world perspective. Am J Manag Care. 2016;6:SP198–SP204.
- Meissner EG. Update in HIV/HCV co-infection in the direct acting antiviral era. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2017;3:120–127.
- Adinolfi L, Rinaldi L, Guerrera B, et al. NAFLD and NASH in HCV Infection: prevalence and significance in hepatic and extrahepatic manifestations. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17:803.
- Dold L, Luda C, Schwarze-Zander C, et al. Genetic polymorphisms associated with fatty liver disease and fibrosis in HIV positive patients receiving combined antiretroviral therapy (cART). PLoS ONE. 2017;12:e178685.
- Dold L, Berger C, Luda C, et al. Single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with alimentary fatty liver disease are not genetic risk factors for treatment-associated hepatic steatosis in HIV patients on HAART. J Clin Res HIV AIDS Prev. 2013;1:1–4.
- Macias J, Rivero-Juarez A, McLaughlin ME, et al., Impact of genetic polymorphisms associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease on HIV-infected individuals. AIDS. 2015;29:1927–1935.
- Chwiki S, Campos MM, McLaughlin ME, et al. Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy on liver hepatocytes and endothelium in HIV patients: an ultrastructural perspective. Ultrastruct Pathol. 2017;41:186–195.
- Guaraldi G, Stentarelli C, Zona S, et al. HIV-associated lipodystrophy: impact of antiretroviral therapy. Drugs. 2013;73:1431–1450.
- Haque T, Sasatomi E, Hayashi PH. Drug-induced liver injury: pattern recognition and future directions. Gut Liver. 2016;10:27–36.
- White A. Mitochondirla toxicity and HIV therapy. Sex Transm Infect. 2001;77:158–173.
- Lake JE, Currier JS. Metabolic disease in HIV infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:964–975.
- Sterling RK, Smith PG, Brunt EM. Hepatic steatosis in human immunodeficiency virus: a prospective study in patients without viral hepatitis, diabetes, or alcohol abuse. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2013;47:182–187.
- Blas-García A, Martí-Rodrigo A, Polo M, et al. The purine analogues abacavir and didanosine increase acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity by enhancing mitochondrial dysfunction. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:916–926.
- Sun R, Eriksson S, Wang L. Zidovudine induces downregulation of mitochondrial deoxynucleoside kinases: implications of mitochondrial toxicity of antiviral nucleoside analogs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:6758–6766.
- Viengchaureun S, Caron M, Auclair M, et al. Mitochondrial toxicity of indinavir, stavudine and zidovudine involves multiple cellular targets in white and brown adipocytes. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:919–929.
- Cunha J, Morganti L, Maselli F, et al. Impact of antiretroviral therapy on lipid metabolism of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: old and new drugs. World J Virol. 2015;12:56–77.
- McGovern BH. Hepatic steatosis in HIV/HCV–coinfected patients: time to reevaluate! Gastroenterology. 2011;140:772–775.
- Brown T, Xiuhong L, Cole S, et al. Cumulative exposure to nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors is associated with insulin resistance markers in the multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. AIDS. 2005;19:1375–1383.
- Palios J, Kadoglou NPE, Lampropoulos S. The pathophysiology of HIV-/HAART-related metabolic syndrome leading to cardiovascular disorders: the emerging role of adipokines. Exp Diabetes Res. 2012;1–7. DOI:10.1155/2012/103063
- Brown TT, Cole SR, Li X, et al. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(10):1179–1184.
- Willing A, Overton E. Metabolic complications and glucose metabolism in HIV infection: a review of the evidence. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2016;13:289–296.
- Crum-Cianflone N, Dilay A, Collins G, et al. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) among HIV-infected persons. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;50:464–473.
- Tate T, Willing A, Willing J, et al. HIV infection and obesity: where did all the wasting go? Antivir Ther. 2012;17:1281–1289.
- Koethe JR, Jenkins CA, Lau B, et al. Rising obesity prevalence and weight gain among adults starting antiretroviral therapy in the United States and Canada. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2016;32:50–58.
- Bares SH, Smeaton L, Xu A, et al. HIV-Infected women gain more weight than HIV-infected men following the initiation of antiretroviral therapy. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2018;27:1162–1169.
- Kwiatkowska W, Knysz B, Drelichowaka-Durawa J, et al. Overweight, obesity and underweight in HIV infected patients. Przegl Lek. 2013;70:113–117.
- Conley LJ, Bush TJ, Rupert AW, et al. Obesity is associated with greater inflammation and monocyte activation among HIV-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2015;29:2201–2207.
- Koethe JR, Heather G, Jenkins C, et al. The metabolic and cardiovascular consequences of obesity in persons with HIV on long-term antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2016;30:83–91.