136
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Decision-making in terrorism sting operations: is entrapment driven by the sunk-cost effect and intergroup biases?

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 223-246 | Received 16 Feb 2023, Accepted 23 Aug 2023, Published online: 09 Oct 2023

References

  • Aaronson, T. (2013). The terror factory: Inside the FBI's manufactured war on terrorism. New York: Ig.
  • Arkes, H. R., & Ayton, P. (1999). The sunk cost and Concorde effects: Are humans less rational than lower animals? Psychological Bulletin, 125(5), 591–600.
  • Arkes, H. R., & Blumer, C. (1985). The psychology of sunk cost. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35(1), 124–140.
  • Aziz, S. (2021). The racial Muslim: When racism quashes religious freedom. Oakland: University of California Press.
  • Aziz, S. (2023). Race, entrapment, and manufacturing “homegrown terrorism.” Georgetown Law Journal, 111, 381–463.
  • Black, D. (2010). The behavior of law: Special edition. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.
  • Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429–444.
  • Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Doherty, D., & Stancliffe, J. (2016). Tolerating Speech: Assessing the Effects of Message, Messenger, and Framing. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=fb242a21b53e4cbccf1523dfab9d87a8445883d5.
  • Doody, R. (2020). The sunk cost” fallacy” is not a fallacy. Ergo: An Open Access Journal of Philosophy, 6(40), 1153–1190.
  • D’Orazio, V., & Salehyan, I. (2018). Who is a terrorist? Ethnicity, group affiliation, and understandings of political violence. International Interactions, 44(6), 1017–1039.
  • Dratel, J. (2011). The literal third way in approaching “material support for terrorism.” Wayne Law Review, 57(1), 11–97.
  • Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to judgment: Stereotyping media and criminal defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 93–133.
  • Evans, S., Roberts, M., Keeley, J., Blossom, J., Amaro, C., Garcia, A., … Reed, G. (2015). Vignette methodologies for studying clinicians’ decision-making: Validity, utility, and application in ICD-11 field studies. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 15(2), 160–170.
  • FBI. (2013). Domestic Investigations and Operations Guide. https://www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/FBI.DIOG_.pdf.
  • FBI. (2023). FBI Diversity Report. https://fbijobs.gov/sites/default/files/2022-05/Report_Diversity.pdf.
  • Frontline. (2003). Chasing the Sleeper Cell (Transcript). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/sleeper/etc/script.html.
  • Fujino, J., Fujimoto, S., Kodaka, F., Camerer, C. F., Kawada, R., Tsurumi, K., … Takahashi, H. (2016). Neural mechanisms and personality correlates of the sunk cost effect. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 1–10.
  • German, M. (2013, April). Manufacturing Terrorists: How FBI sting operations make jihadists out of hapless malcontents, Reason, http://reason.com/archives/2013/03/15/manufacturing-terrorists.
  • Golash-Boza, T. (2016). A critical and comprehensive sociological theory of race and racism. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 2(2), 129–141.
  • González, K., Verkuyten, M., Weesie, J., & Poppe, E. (2008). Prejudice towards Muslims in The Netherlands: Testing integrated threat theory. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47(4), 667–685.
  • Haeg, J. (2022). Entrapment and Manipulation. Res Publica, 28(4), 557–583.
  • Haita-Falah, C. (2017). Sunk-cost fallacy and cognitive ability in individual decision-making. Journal of Economic Psychology, 58, 44–59.
  • Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997). The cultural construction of self-enhancement: An examination of group-serving biases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(6), 1268–1283.
  • Hill, D. J., McLeod, S. K., & Tanyi, A. (2018). The concept of entrapment. Criminal Law and Philosophy, 12(4), 539–554.
  • Hill, D. J., McLeod, S. K., & Tanyi, A. (2022). Entrapment, temptation and virtue testing. Philosophical Studies, 179(8), 2429–2447.
  • Ho, H. L. (2011). State entrapment. Legal Studies, 31(1), 71–95.
  • Huff, C., & Kertzer, J. D. (2018). How the public defines terrorism. American Journal of Political Science, 62(1), 55–71.
  • Hunt, L. W. (2018). The retrieval of liberalism in policing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Iqbal, K. (2019). The rise of Hindutva, saffron terrorism and South Asian regional security. Journal of Security & Strategic Analyses, 5(1), 43–63.
  • James, L., Klinger, D., & Vila, B. (2014). Racial and ethnic bias in decisions to shoot seen through a stronger lens: Experimental results from high-fidelity laboratory simulations. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10, 323–340.
  • Johnson, R. R. (2017). Show me your hands! Police and public perceptions of violent interpersonal cues. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 32, 289–299.
  • Johnson, T., Kulesa, P., Cho, Y. I., & Shavitt, S. (2005). The relation between culture and response styles: Evidence from 19 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(2), 264–277.
  • Kramer, S. (2021). Religious composition of India. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/09/21/religious-composition-of-india/.
  • Kteily, N., Bruneau, E., Waytz, A., & Cotterill, S. (2015). The ascent of man: Theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(5), 901–931.
  • Kulshreshtha, N. (2021). Developing a structure for adjudicating entrapment claims in India. Indon. J. Int'l & Comp. L., 8, 339–362.
  • Laguardia, F. (2013). Terrorists, informants, and buffoons: The case for downward departure as a response to entrapment. Lewis & Clark L. Rev., 17, 171–214.
  • Marcus, P. (2009). The entrapment defense. New York: LexisNexis.
  • Marshall, B. C., & Alison, L. J. (2007). Stereotyping, congruence and presentation order: Interpretative biases in utilizing offender profiles. Psychology, Crime & Law, 13(3), 285–303.
  • McAdams, R. H. (2005). The political economy of entrapment. J. Crim. L. & Criminology, 96, 107–185.
  • Meterko, V., & Cooper, G. (2022). Cognitive biases in criminal case evaluation: A review of the research. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 37(1), 101–122.
  • Mueller, J. E., & Stewart, M. G. (2016). Chasing ghosts: The policing of terrorism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Mullinix, K. J., Leeper, T. J., Druckman, J. N., & Freese, J. (2015). The generalizability of survey experiments. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 2(2), 109–138.
  • Murphy, B. (2021). Regulating undercover law enforcement: The Australian experience. Singapore: Springer Singapore.
  • Murphy, B., & Anderson, J. (2013). After the serpent beguiled me: Entrapment and sentencing in Australia and Canada. Queen's LJ, 39, 621–654.
  • Naseem, A. (2012). The literal truth about terrorism: An analysis of post-9/11 popular US non-fiction books on terrorism. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 5(3), 455–467.
  • Nathan, C. (2022). The ethics of undercover policing. London: Routledge.
  • Negrini, M., Riedl, A., & Wibral, M. (2022). Sunk cost in investment decisions. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 200, 1105–1135.
  • Norris, J. J. (2015). Why the FBI and the courts are wrong about entrapment and terrorism. Miss. Law Journal, 84, 1257–1327.
  • Norris, J. J. (2016). Entrapment and terrorism on the left. New Criminal Law Review, 19(2), 236–278.
  • Norris, J. J. (2019). Explaining the emergence of entrapment in post-9/11 terrorism investigations. Critical Criminology, 27, 467–483.
  • Norris, J. J. (2020a). Accounting for the (almost complete) failure of the entrapment defense in post-9/11 US terrorism cases. Law & Social Inquiry, 45(1), 194–225.
  • Norris, J. J. (2020b). How entrapment still matters: Partial successes of entrapment claims in terrorism prosecutions. In A. Sarat (Ed.), Studies in Law, politics, and society (Vol. 82, pp. 141–166). Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited.
  • Norris, J. J. (2021). Another form of American exceptionalism? A comparative analysis of terrorism sting operations in the US and abroad. Terrorism and Political Violence, 33(7), 1399–1423.
  • Norris, J. J., & Grol-Prokopczyk, H. (2015). Estimating the prevalence of entrapment in post-9/11 terrorism cases. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 105, 609–678.
  • Norris, J. J., & Grol-Prokopczyk, H. (2018). Temporal trends in US counterterrorism sting operations, 1989–2014. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 11(2), 243–271.
  • Norris, J. J., & Grol-Prokopczyk, H. (2019). Racial and other sociodemographic disparities in terrorism sting operations. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 5, 416–431.
  • Ohlert, C. R., & Weißenberger, B. E. (2020). Debiasing escalation of commitment: The effectiveness of decision aids to enhance de-escalation. Journal of Management Control, 30, 405–438.
  • Olivola, C. Y. (2018). The interpersonal sunk-cost effect. Psychological Science, 29(7), 1072–1083.
  • Piazza, J. A. (2015). Terrorist suspect religious identity and public support for harsh interrogation and detention practices. Political Psychology, 36(6), 667–690.
  • Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448.
  • Rammstedt, B., & John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 203–212.
  • Rukmini, S. (2019). Authoritarian streak among Indians on the rise and it’s helping BJP’s hard Right turn. The Print. https://theprint.in/opinion/authoritarian-streak-among-indians-on-the-rise-and-its-helping-bjps-hard-right-turn/335467/.
  • Sadler, M. S., Correll, J., Park, B., & Judd, C. M. (2012). The world is not black and white: Racial bias in the decision to shoot in a multiethnic context. Journal of Social Issues, 68(2), 286–313.
  • Sageman, M. (2017). Misunderstanding terrorism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Sageman, M. (2021). The implication of terrorism's extremely low base rate. Terrorism and Political Violence, 33(2), 302–311.
  • Said, W. E. (2015). Crimes of terror: The legal and political implications of federal terrorism prosecutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Singh, U. K. (2019). Law, state and right-wing extremism in India. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 14(3), 280–297.
  • Siyech, M. S. (2018). A typology of insurgent, terrorist and extremist threats in India. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 13(2), 231–251.
  • Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretive phenomonological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (pp. 53–80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
  • Stevenson, D. (2008). Entrapment and terrorism. Boston College Law Review, 49, 125–215.
  • Stitt, B. G., & James, G. G. (1984). Entrapment and the entrapment defense: Dilemmas for a democratic society. Law and Philosophy, 3, 111–131.
  • Strough, J., Mehta, C. M., McFall, J. P., & Schuller, K. L. (2008). Are older adults less subject to the sunk-cost fallacy than younger adults? Psychological Science, 19, 650–652.
  • Szpunar, P. M. (2017). Premediating predisposition: Informants, entrapment, and connectivity in counterterrorism. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 34(4), 371–385.
  • Thomas, S. A., Moak, S. C., & Walker, J. T. (2013). The contingent effect of race in juvenile court detention decisions. Race and Justice, 3(3), 239–265.
  • Tillyer, R., & Hartley, R. D. (2010). Driving racial profiling research forward: Learning lessons from sentencing research. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 657–665.
  • Turner, S. P. (2008). How not to do science. The Sociological Quarterly, 49(2), 237–251.
  • US Census. (2023). Quick Facts United States. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045221.
  • Whelan, C., Wagstaff, G., & Wheatcroft, J. M. (2015). High stakes lies: Police and non-police accuracy in detecting deception. Psychology, Crime & Law, 21(2), 127–138.
  • Yoder, C. Y., Mancha, R., & Agrawal, N. (2014). Culture-related factors affect sunk cost bias. Behavioral Development Bulletin, 19(4), 105–118.
  • Yousef, O. (2022, April 12). Verdicts in Michigan governor kidnapping plot fuels questions on white extremism. National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/2022/04/12/1092414606/the-wolverine-watchmen-verdicts-spark-questions-over-how-white-extremists-are-se.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.