294
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Perceived Risk of Chinese Outbound Tourists in the Risky World

动荡环境下中国出境游客的风险感知

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 70-89 | Received 28 May 2022, Accepted 11 Dec 2022, Published online: 14 Feb 2023

References

  • Agyeiwaah, E., Adam, I., Dayour, F., & Badu Baiden, F. (2021). Perceived impacts of COVID-19 on risk perceptions, emotions, and travel intentions: Evidence from Macau higher educational institutions. Tourism Recreation Research, 46(2), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2021.1872263
  • Amores, A., Monserrat, S., Marcos, M., Argüeso, D., Villalonga, J., Jordà, G., & Gomis, D. (2022). Numerical simulation of atmospheric Lamb waves generated by the 2022 Hunga‐Tonga volcanic eruption. Geophysical Research Letters, 49, e2022GL098240. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL098240
  • Aziz, N. A., & Long, F. (2022). To travel, or not to travel? The impacts of travel constraints and perceived travel risk on travel intention among Malaysian tourists amid the COVID‐19. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 21(2), 352–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.2008
  • Bhati, A. S., Mohammadi, Z., Agarwal, M., Kamble, Z., & Donough-Tan, G. (2021). Motivating or manipulating: The influence of health-protective behaviour and media engagement on post-COVID-19 travel. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(15), 2088–2092. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1819970
  • Bockarjova, M., & Steg, L. (2014). Can Protection Motivation Theory predict pro-environmental behavior? Explaining the adoption of electric vehicles in the Netherlands. Global Environmental Change, 28, 276–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.06.010
  • Chen, M. (2022). Nation to promote inbound tourism after COVID recedes. Retrieved April 1, 2022, from http://english.www.gov.cn/policies/policywatch/202202/07/content_WS6200510ac6d09c94e48a4c60.html
  • Chen, F., Dai, S., Zhu, Y., & Xu, H. (2020). Will concerns for ski tourism promote pro‐environmental behaviour? An implication of protection motivation theory. International Journal of Tourism Research, 22(3), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2336
  • Chen, S., Law, R., & Zhang, M. (2021). Review of research on tourism-related diseases. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 26(1), 44–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2020.1805478
  • Cheron, E. J., & Ritchie, J. B. (1982). Leisure activities and perceived risk. Journal of Leisure Research, 14(2), 139–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1982.11969511
  • China Tourism Academy. (2020). Annual Report of China Outbound Tourism Development 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2022, from http://www.ctaweb.org.cn/cta/ztyj/202103/87a492a44eda4038b7fe8f6428ed3d5d.shtml
  • China Tourism Academy. (2021). Annual Report of China Outbound Tourism Development 2021. Retrieved April 2, 2022, from https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xrM2VdPUNRW5X4qWR6CyYg
  • Cohen, E. (1972). Toward a sociology of international tourism. Social Research, 39(1), 164–182. https://wwwjstor.org/stable/40970087
  • Corbet, S., Efthymiou, M., Lucey, B., & O’connell, J. F. (2021). When lightning strikes twice: The tragedy-induced demise and attempted corporate resuscitation of Malaysia airlines. Annals of Tourism Research, 87, 103109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.103109
  • Das, S. S., & Tiwari, A. K. (2021). Understanding international and domestic travel intention of Indian travellers during COVID-19 using a Bayesian approach. Tourism Recreation Research, 46(2), 228–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2020.1830341
  • Dolnicar, S., & McCabe, S. (2022). Solidarity tourism - How can tourism help the Ukraine and other war-torn countries? Annals of Tourism Research, 94, 103386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2022.103386
  • Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
  • Floyd, M. F., Gibson, H., Pennington-Gray, L., & Thapa, B. (2004). The effect of risk perceptions on intentions to travel in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 15(2–3), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v15n02_02
  • Floyd, D. L., Prentice‐dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2000). A meta‐analysis of research on protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(2), 407–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x
  • Goeldner, C. R., & Ritchie, J. B. (2007). Tourism principles, practices, philosophies. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Goodman, L. A. (1961). Snowball sampling. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 32(1), 148–170. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177705148
  • Hadinejad, A., Noghan, N., Moyle, B. D., Scott, N., & Kralj, A. (2021). Future research on visitors’ attitudes to tourism destinations. Tourism Management, 83, 104215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104215
  • Hertzog, M. A. (2008). Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies. Research in Nursing & Health, 31(2), 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20247
  • Hsieh, Y. J., Chen, Y. L., & Wang, Y. C. (2021). Government and social trust vs. hotel response efficacy: A protection motivation perspective on hotel stay intention during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 97, 102991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102991
  • Ifinedo, P. (2012). Understanding information systems security policy compliance: An integration of the theory of planned behavior and the protection motivation theory. Computers & Security, 31(1), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2011.10.007
  • Ivanov, S., Gavrilina, M., Webster, C., & Ralko, V. (2017). Impacts of political instability on the tourism industry in Ukraine. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 9(1), 100–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2016.1209677
  • Kim, E. E. K., Seo, K., & Choi, Y. (2022). Compensatory travel post COVID-19: Cognitive and emotional effects of risk perception. Journal of Travel Research, 61(8), 1895–1909. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875211048930
  • Kovačić, S., Mărgărint, M. C., Ionce, R., & Miljković, Đ. (2020). What are the factors affecting tourist behavior based on the perception of risk? Romanian and Serbian tourists’ perspective in the aftermath of the recent floods and wildfires in Greece. Sustainability, 12(16), 6310. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166310
  • Kozak, M., Crotts, J. C., & Law, R. (2007). The impact of the perception of risk on international travellers. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(4), 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.607
  • Law, R. (2006). The perceived impact of risks on travel decisions. International Journal of Tourism Research, 8(4), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.576
  • Law, R., To, T., & Goh, C. (2008). How do Mainland Chinese travelers choose restaurants in Hong Kong? An exploratory study of individual visit scheme travelers and packaged travelers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(3), 346–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.10.004
  • Leggat, P. A., & Klein, M. (2001). Personal safety advice for travelers abroad. Journal of Travel Medicine, 8(1), 46–51. https://doi.org/10.2310/7060.2001.5170
  • Lenggogeni, S., Ritchie, B. W., & Slaughter, L. (2019). Understanding travel risks in a developing country: A bottom-up approach. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(8), 941–955. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2019.1661329
  • Li, F., Wen, J., & Ying, T. (2018). The influence of crisis on tourists’ perceived destination image and revisit intention: An exploratory study of Chinese tourists to North Korea. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 9, 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.11.006
  • Luo, Q., & Zhai, X. (2017). “I will never go to Hong Kong again!” How the secondary crisis communication of “Occupy Central” on Weibo shifted to a tourism boycott. Tourism Management, 62, 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.04.007
  • Maddux, J. E., & Rogers, R. W. (1983). Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(5), 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9
  • Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
  • Meng, Y., Khan, A., Bibi, S., Wu, H., Lee, Y., & Chen, W. (2021). The effects of COVID-19 risk perception on travel intention: Evidence from Chinese travelers. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 655860. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655860
  • Milne, S., Sheeran, P., & Orbell, S. (2000). Prediction and intervention in health‐related behavior: A meta‐analytic review of protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(1), 106–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02308.x
  • Mitchell, V. W. (1999). Consumer perceived risk: Conceptualisations and models. European Journal of Marketing, 33(1/2), 163–195. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090569910249229
  • Mitchell, V. -W., & Greatorex, M. (1993). Risk perception and reduction in the purchase of consumer services. Service Industries Journal, 13(4), 179–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069300000068
  • Money, R. B., & Crotts, J. C. (2003). The effect of uncertainty avoidance on information search, planning, and purchases of international travel vacations. Tourism Management, 24(2), 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(02)00057-2
  • Park, K., & Reisinger, Y. (2010). Differences in the perceived influence of natural disasters and travel risk on international travel. Tourism Geographies, 12(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616680903493621
  • Purbrick, M. (2019). A report of the 2019 Hong Kong protests. Asian Affairs, 50(4), 465–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2019.1672397
  • Qi, C. X., Gibson, H. J., & Zhang, J. J. (2009). Perceptions of risk and travel intentions: The case of China and the Beijing Olympic Games. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 14(1), 43–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080902847439
  • Quintal, V. A., Lee, J. A., & Soutar, G. N. (2010a). Risk, uncertainty and the theory of planned behavior: A tourism example. Tourism Management, 31(6), 797–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.08.006
  • Quintal, V. A., Lee, J. A., & Soutar, G. N. (2010b). Tourists’ information search: The differential impact of risk and uncertainty avoidance. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(4), 321–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.753
  • Rather, R. A. (2021). Monitoring the impacts of tourism-based social media, risk perception and fear on tourist’s attitude and revisiting behaviour in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(23), 3275–3283. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1884666
  • Rittichainuwat, B. N., & Chakraborty, G. (2009). Perceived travel risks regarding terrorism and disease: The case of Thailand. Tourism Management, 30(3), 410–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.08.001
  • Rittichainuwat, B., Nelson, R., & Rahmafitria, F. (2018). Applying the perceived probability of risk and bias toward optimism: Implications for travel decisions in the face of natural disasters. Tourism Management, 66, 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.09.013
  • Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. The Journal of Psychology, 91(1), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803
  • Ruan, W., Kang, S., & Song, H. (2020). Applying protection motivation theory to understand international tourists’ behavioural intentions under the threat of air pollution: A case of Beijing, China. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16), 2027–2041. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1743242
  • Schiffmann, L. G., & Kanuk, L. L. (1991). Consumer behavior. Prentice Hall International.
  • Scholtz, S. E. (2021). Sacrifice is a step beyond convenience: A review of convenience sampling in psychological research in Africa. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 47(0), a1837. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v47i0.1837
  • Sharma, S., Singh, G., & Pratt, S. (2022). Modeling the multi-dimensional facets of perceived risk in purchasing travel online: A generational analysis. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality and Tourism, 23(2), 539–567. https://doi.org/10.1080/1528008X.2021.1891597
  • Šimková, E., & Holzner, J. (2014). Motivation of tourism participants. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 159, 660–664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.455
  • Slevitch, L., & Sharma, A. (2008). Management of perceived risk in the context of destination choice. International Journal of Hospitality Tourism Administration, 9(1), 85–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480801910574
  • Sönmez, S. F., & Graefe, A. R. (1998a). Determining future travel behavior from past travel experience and perceptions of risk and safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37(2), 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759803700209
  • Sönmez, S. F., & Graefe, A. R. (1998b). Influence of terrorism risk on foreign tourism decisions. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1), 112–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(97)00072-8
  • The State Council, PRC. (2019). Tourist flow between China and participating countries have exceeded 60 million along with the Belt and Road Initiative. Retrieved April 2, 2022, from http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2019-04/26/content_5386441.htm
  • Stern, D. E., Lamb, C. W., & MacLachlan, D. L. (1977). Perceived risk: A synthesis. European Journal of Marketing, 11(4), 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000005017
  • Sun, S., Law, R., & Luk, C. (2022). Tourists’ travel-related information search channels. International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration, 23(2), 149–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2020.1727809
  • Tanner, J. F., Jr., Hunt, J. B., & Eppright, D. R. (1991). The protection motivation model: A normative model of fear appeals. Journal of Marketing, 55(3), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299105500304
  • Teeroovengadum, V., Seetanah, B., Bindah, E., Pooloo, A., & Veerasawmy, I. (2021). Minimising perceived travel risk in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic to boost travel and tourism. Tourism Review, 76(4), 910–928. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-05-2020-0195
  • Toanoglou, M., Chemli, S., & Valeri, M. (2022). The organizational impact of Covid-19 crisis on travel perceived risk across four continents. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 35(2), 293–307. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-12-2020-0369
  • Wang, J., Liu Lastres, B., Ritchie, B. W., & Mills, D. J. (2019). Travellers’ self-protections against health risks: An application of the full Protection Motivation Theory. Annals of Tourism Research, 78, 102743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102743
  • Wenjuanxing. (2022). About us. Retrieved March 20, 2022, from https://www.wjx.cn/html/aboutus.aspx
  • WHO. (2003). Update 31 - Coronavirus never before seen in humans is the cause of SARS. Retrieved April 2, 2022, from https://www.who.int/news/item/16-04-2003-update-31—coronavirus-never-before-seen-in-humans-is-the-cause-of-sars
  • WHO. (2022). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Retrieved November 14, 2022, from https://covid19.who.int/
  • Williams, A. M., & Baláž, V. (2013). Tourism, risk tolerance and competences: Travel organization and tourism hazards. Tourism Management, 35, 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.006
  • Wolff, K., Larsen, S., & Øgaard, T. (2019). How to define and measure risk perceptions. Annals of Tourism Research, 79, 102759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102759
  • Xu, H., Wang, K., & Song, Y. M. (2020). Chinese outbound tourism and soft power. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 12(1), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2018.1505105
  • Yang, C. L., & Nair, V. (2014a). Risk perception study in tourism: Are we really measuring perceived risk? Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 144, 322–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.302
  • Yang, C. L., & Nair, V. (2014b). Tourism at risk: A review of risk and perceived risk in tourism. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 3(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.7603/s40930-014-0013-z
  • Zheng, D., Luo, Q., & Ritchie, B. W. (2021). Afraid to travel after COVID-19? Self-protection, coping and resilience against pandemic ‘travel fear’. Tourism Management, 83, 104261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104261

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.