Comparing early life nutritional sources and human milk feeding practices: personalized and dynamic nutrition supports infant gut microbiome development and immune system maturation

References

• Hornef MW, Torow N. ‘Layered immunity’ and the ‘neonatal window of opportunity’ – timed succession of non-redundant phases to establish mucosal host–microbial homeostasis after birth. Immunology. 2020;159(1):15–25. doi:10.1111/imm.13149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weström B, Arévalo Sureda E, Pierzynowska K, Pierzynowski SG, Pérez-Cano F-J. The immature gut barrier and its importance in establishing immunity in newborn mammals. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1153. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussbaum C, Gloning A, Pruenster M, Frommhold D, Bierschenk S, Genzel-Boroviczeny O, von Andrian UH, Quackenbush E, Sperandio M. Neutrophil and endothelial adhesive function during human fetal ontogeny. J Leukoc Biol. 2013;93(2):175–184. doi:10.1189/jlb.0912468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadeghi K, Berger A, Langgartner M, Prusa A, Hayde M, Herkner K, Pollak A, Spittler A, Förster-waldl E. Immaturity of infection control in preterm and term newborns is associated with impaired toll-like receptor signaling. J Infect Dis. 2007;195(2):296–302. doi:10.1086/509892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willems F, Vollstedt S, Suter M. Phenotype and function of neonatal DC. Eur J Immunol. 2009;39(1):26–35. doi:10.1002/eji.200838391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brambell FWR. The transmission of immunity from mother to young and the catabolism of immunoglobulins. The Lancet. 1966;2(7473):1087–1093. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(66)92190-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynes BF, Martin ME, Kay HH, Kurtzberg J. Early events in human T cell ontogeny. Phenotypic characterization and immunohistologic localization of T cell precursors in early human fetal tissues. J Exp Med. 1988;168(3):1061–1080. doi:10.1084/jem.168.3.1061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mold JE, Venkatasubrahmanyam S, Burt TD, Michaëlsson J, Rivera JM, Galkina SA, Weinberg K, Stoddart CA, McCune JM. Fetal and adult hematopoietic stem cells give rise to distinct t cell lineages in humans. Science. 2010;330(6011):1695–1699. doi:10.1126/science.1196509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawod B, Marshall JS, Azad MB. Breastfeeding and the developmental origins of mucosal immunity: how human milk shapes the innate and adaptive mucosal immune systems. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2021;37(6):547–556. doi:10.1097/MOG.0000000000000778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao Y, Cai X, Ye Y, Wang F, Chen F, Zheng C. The role of microbiota in infant health: from early life to adulthood. Front Immunol. 2021;12:708472. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.708472.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houghteling PD, Walker WA. Why is initial bacterial colonization of the intestine important to infants’ and children’s health? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2015;60(3):294–307. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000000597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He X, Parenti M, Grip T, Domellöf M, Lönnerdal B, Hernell O, Timby N, Slupsky CM. Metabolic phenotype of breast-fed infants, and infants fed standard formula or bovine MFGM supplemented formula: a randomized controlled trial. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):339. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-48858-y.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Isaacs EB, Fischl BR, Quinn BT, Chong WK, Gadian DG, Lucas A. Impact of breast milk on intelligence quotient, brain size, and white matter development. Pediatr Res. 2010;67(4):357–362. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e3181d026da.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cryan JF, O’riordan KJ, Sandhu K, Peterson V, Dinan TG. The gut microbiome in neurological disorders. Lancet Neurol. 2020;19(2):179–194. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30356-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hills RD, Pontefract BA, Mishcon HR, Black CA, Sutton SC, Theberge CR. Gut microbiome: profound implications for diet and disease. Nutrients. 2019;11(7):1613. doi:10.3390/nu11071613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart CJ, Ajami NJ, O’brien JL, Hutchinson DS, Smith DP, Wong MC, Ross MC, Lloyd RE, Doddapaneni HV, Metcalf GA, et al. Temporal development of the gut microbiome in early childhood from the TEDDY study. Nature. 2018;562(7728):583–588. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0617-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bäckhed F, Roswall J, Peng Y, Feng Q, Jia H, Kovatcheva-Datchary P, Li Y, Xia Y, Xie H, Zhong H, et al. Dynamics and stabilization of the human gut microbiome during the first year of life. Cell Host Microbe. 2015;17(5):690–703. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2015.04.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis EC, Dinsmoor AM, Wang M, Donovan SM. Microbiome composition in pediatric populations from birth to adolescence: impact of diet and prebiotic and probiotic interventions. Dig Dis Sci. 2020;65(3):706–722. doi:10.1007/s10620-020-06092-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forbes JD, Azad MB, Vehling L, Tun HM, Konya TB, Guttman DS, Field CJ, Lefebvre D, Sears MR, Becker AB, et al. Association of exposure to formula in the hospital and subsequent infant feeding practices with gut microbiota and risk of overweight in the first year of life. JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(7):e181161. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho NT, Li F, Lee-Sarwar KA, Tun HM, Brown BP, Pannaraj PS, Bender JM, Azad MB, Thompson AL, Weiss ST, et al. Meta-analysis of effects of exclusive breastfeeding on infant gut microbiota across populations. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):4169. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06473-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panwar RB, Sequeira RP, Clarke TB. Microbiota-mediated protection against antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Genes Immun. 2021;22(5-6):255–267. doi:10.1038/s41435-021-00129-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuda S, Toh H, Hase K, Oshima K, Nakanishi Y, Yoshimura K, Tobe T, Clarke JM, Topping DL, Suzuki T, et al. Bifidobacteria can protect from enteropathogenic infection through production of acetate. Nature. 2011;469(7331):543–547. doi:10.1038/nature09646.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng L, Li Z-R, Green RS, Holzman IR, Lin J. Butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by facilitating tight junction assembly via activation of AMP-Activated protein kinase in Caco-2 cell monolayers. J Nutr. 2009;139(9):1619–1625. doi:10.3945/jn.109.104638.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang S, Paul S, Kundu P. NF-κB regulation by gut microbiota decides homeostasis or disease outcome during ageing. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022;10:874940. doi:10.3389/fcell.2022.874940.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost BL, Jilling T, Caplan MS. The importance of pro-inflammatory signaling in neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Semin Perinatol. 2008;32(2):100–106. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2008.01.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knoop KA, Gustafsson JK, McDonald KG, Kulkarni DH, Coughlin PE, McCrate S, Kim D, Hsieh C-S, Hogan SP, Elson CO, et al. Microbial antigen encounter during a preweaning interval is critical for tolerance to gut bacteria. Sci Immunol. 2017;2(18): eaao1314. doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.aao1314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhasselt V. Neonatal tolerance under breastfeeding influence. Curr Opin Immunol. 2010;22(5):623–630. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2010.08.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowland I, Gibson G, Heinken A, Scott K, Swann J, Thiele I, Tuohy K. Gut microbiota functions: metabolism of nutrients and other food components. Eur J Nutr. 2018;57(1):1–24. doi:10.1007/s00394-017-1445-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Esch BC, Porbahaie M, Abbring S, Garssen J, Potaczek DP, Savelkoul HFJ, van Neerven RJJ. The impact of milk and its components on epigenetic programming of immune function in early life and beyond: implications for allergy and asthma. Front Immunol. 2020;11:2141. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.02141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiemsma LT, Turvey SE. Asthma and the microbiome: defining the critical window in early life. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2017;13:3. doi:10.1186/s13223-016-0173-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarkar A, Yoo JY, Dutra SVO, Morgan KH, Groer M. The association between early-life gut microbiota and long-term health and diseases. J Clin Med. 2022;10(3):459. doi:10.3390/jcm10030459.
   Google Scholar
• Palmquist AEL, Doehler K. Human milk sharing practices in the U.S. Matern Child Nutr. 2016;12(2):278–290. doi:10.1111/mcn.12221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballard O, Morrow AL. Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2013;60(1):49–74. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2012.10.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJD, França GVA, Horton S, Krasevec J, Murch S, Sankar MJ, Walker N, Rollins NC, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. The Lancet. 2016;387(10017):475–490. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01024-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shenhav L, Azad MB, Gilbert JA. Using community ecology theory and computational microbiome methods to study human milk as a biological system. mSystems. 2022;7(1): e0113221. doi:10.1128/msystems.01132-21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian P, Smith ER, Lee SE, Vargas AJ, Bremer AA, Raiten DJ. The need to study human milk as a biological system. Am J Clin Nutr. 113(5);1063–1072. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab075.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulski J, Hartmann P. Changes in human milk composition during the initiation of lactation. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci. 1981;59(1):101–114. doi:10.1038/icb.1981.6.
   Google Scholar
• Riskin A, Almog M, Peri R, Halasz K, Srugo I, Kessel A. Changes in immunomodulatory constituents of human milk in response to active infection in the nursing infant. Pediatr Res. 2012;71(2):220–225. doi:10.1038/pr.2011.34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewaschuk JB, Unger S, Harvey S, O’connor DL, Field CJ. Effect of pasteurization on immune components of milk: implications for feeding preterm infants. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2011;36(2):175–182. doi:10.1139/h11-008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witkowska-Zimny M, Kaminska-El-Hassan E. Cells of human breast milk. Cell Mol Biol Lett. 2017;22:11. doi:10.1186/s11658-017-0042-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dussault N, Cayer MP, Landry P, de Grandmont MJ, Cloutier M, Thibault L, Girard M. Comparison of the effect of holder pasteurization and high-pressure processing on human milk bacterial load and bioactive factors preservation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2021;72(5):756–762. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000003065.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahrabi AF, Handa D, Codipilly CN, Shah S, Williams JE, McGuire MA, Potak D, Aharon GG, Schanler RJ. Effects of extended freezer storage on the integrity of human milk. J Pediatr. 2016;177:140–143. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.06.024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czosnykowska-Łukacka M, Lis-Kuberka J, Królak-Olejnik B, Orczyk-Pawiłowicz M. Changes in human milk immunoglobulin profile during prolonged lactation. Front Pediatr. 2020;8:428. doi:10.3389/fped.2020.00428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clyne PS, Kulczycki A. Human breast milk contains bovine lgG. Relationship to infant colic? Pediatrics. 1991;87(4):439–444. doi:10.1542/peds.87.4.439.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramírez-Santana C, Pérez-Cano FJ, Audí C, Castell M, Moretones MG, López-Sabater MC, Castellote C, Franch A. Effects of cooling and freezing storage on the stability of bioactive factors in human colostrum. J Dairy Sci. 2012;95(5):2319–2325. doi:10.3168/jds.2011-5066.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peroni DG, Piacentini GL, Bodini A, Pigozzi R, Boner AL. Transforming growth factor-β1 is elevated in unpasteurized cow’s milk. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2009;20(1):42–44. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2008.00737.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost BL, Jilling T, Lapin B, Maheshwari A, Caplan MS. Maternal breast milk transforming growth factor-beta and feeding intolerance in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 2014;76(4):386–393. doi:10.1038/pr.2014.96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawod B, Marshall JS. Cytokines and soluble receptors in breast milk as enhancers of oral tolerance development. Front Immunol. 2019;10:16. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Untalan PB, Keeney SE, Palkowetz KH, Rivera A, Goldman AS. Heat susceptibility of interleukin-10 and other cytokines in donor human milk. Breastfeed Med. 2009;4(3):137–144. doi:10.1089/bfm.2008.0145.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giorgi MV, Codipilly CN, Potak D, Heiman HS, Schanler RJ. Pasteurization preserves IL-8 in human milk. Front Pediatr. 2018;6:281. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoeflich A, Meyer Z. Functional analysis of the IGF-system in milk. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;31(4):409–418. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2017.10.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ngom PT, Collinson AC, Pido-Lopez J, Henson SM, Prentice AM, Aspinall R. Improved thymic function in exclusively breastfed infants is associated with higher interleukin 7 concentrations in their mothers’ breast milk. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(3):722–728. doi:10.1093/ajcn/80.3.722.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewaschuk JB, Unger S, O’connor DL, Stone D, Harvey S, Clandinin MT, Field CJ. Effect of pasteurization on selected immune components of donated human breast milk. J Perinatol. 2011;31(9):593–598. doi:10.1038/jp.2010.209.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummins AG, Thompson FM. Effect of breast milk and weaning on epithelial growth of the small intestine in humans. Gut. 2002;51(5):748–754. doi:10.1136/gut.51.5.748.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yagi H, Suzuki S, Noji T, Nagashima K, Kuroume T. Epidermal growth factor in cow’s milk and milk formulas. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1986;75(2):233–235. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.1986.tb10190.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satue-Gracia MT, Frankel EN, Rangavajhyala N, German JB. Lactoferrin in infant formulas: effect on oxidation. J Agric Food Chem. 2000;48(10):4984–4990. doi:10.1021/jf0002490.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapourchali FR, Cresci GAM. Early-life gut microbiome—the importance of maternal and infant factors in its establishment. Nutr Clin Pract. 2020;35(3):386–405. doi:10.1002/ncp.10490.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khodayar-Pardo P, Mira-Pascual L, Collado MC, Martínez-Costa C. Impact of lactation stage, gestational age and mode of delivery on breast milk microbiota. J Perinatol. 2014;34(8):599–605. doi:10.1038/jp.2014.47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn W, Kim J, Song S, Park S, Kang NM. The human milk oligosaccharides are not affected by pasteurization and freeze-drying. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019;32:985–991. doi:10.1080/14767058.2017.1397122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almeida CC, Mendonça Pereira BF, Leandro KC, Costa MP, Spisso BF, Conte-Junior CA. Bioactive compounds in infant formula and their effects on infant nutrition and health: a systematic literature review. Int J Food Sci. 2021;2021:8850080. doi:10.1155/2021/8850080.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bührer C, Ensenauer R, Jochum F, Kalhoff H, Koletzko B, Lawrenz B, Mihatsch W, Posovszky C, Rudloff S. Infant formulas with synthetic oligosaccharides and respective marketing practices. Mol Cell Pediatr. 2022;9(1):14. doi:10.1186/s40348-022-00147-x.
   Google Scholar
• Plows JF, Berger PK, Jones RB, Alderete TL, Yonemitsu C, Najera JA, Khwajazada S, Bode L, Goran MI. Longitudinal changes in Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMOs) over the course of 24 months of lactation. J Nutr. 2021;151(4):876–882. doi:10.1093/jn/nxaa427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floris LM, Stahl B, Abrahamse-Berkeveld M, Teller IC. Human milk fatty acid profile across lactational stages after term and preterm delivery: a pooled data analysis. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2020;156:102023. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2019.102023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fidler N, Sauerwald TU, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B. Fat content and fatty acid composition of fresh, pasteurized, or sterilized human milk. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2001;501:485–495 doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-1371-1_60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang YC, Chen CH, Lin MC. The macronutrients in human milk change after storage in various containers. Pediatr Neonatol. 2012;53(3):205–209. doi:10.1016/j.pedneo.2012.04.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castillo F, Castillo-Ferrer FJ, Cordobilla B, Domingo JC. Inadequate content of Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) of donor human milk for feeding preterm infants: a comparison with mother’s own milk at different stages of lactation. Nutrients. 2021;13(4):1300. doi:10.3390/nu13041300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Lara NR, Escuder-Vieco D, García-Algar O, de La Cruz J, Lora D, Pallás-Alonso C. Effect of freezing time on macronutrients and energy content of breastmilk. Breastfeed Med. 2012;7(4):295–301. doi:10.1089/bfm.2011.0079.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegh CAM, Geerlings SY, Knol J, Roeselers G, Belzer C. Postbiotics and their potential applications in early life nutrition and beyond. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(19):4673. doi:10.3390/ijms20194673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scano P, Murgia A, Demuru M, Consonni R, Caboni P. Metabolite profiles of formula milk compared to breast milk. Food Res Int. 2016;87:76–82. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2016.06.024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim SY, Yi DY. Components of human breast milk: from macronutrient to microbiome and microRNA. Clin Exp Pediatr. 2020;63(8):301–309. doi:10.3345/cep.2020.00059.
   Google Scholar
• Hatmal MM, Al-Hatamleh MAI, Olaimat AN, Alshaer W, Hasan H, Albakri KA, Alkhafaji E, Issa NN, Al-Holy MA, Abderrahman SM, et al. Immunomodulatory properties of human breast milk: microRNA contents and potential epigenetic effects. Biomed. 2022;10(6):1219. doi:10.3390/biomedicines10061219.
   Google Scholar
• Matias-Garcia PR, Wilson R, Mussack V, Reischl E, Waldenberger M, Gieger C, Anton G, Peters A, Kuehn-Steven A. Impact of long-term storage and freeze-thawing on eight circulating microRnas in plasma samples. PLoS One. 2020;15(1):e0227648. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard KM, Jati Kusuma R, Baier SR, Friemel T, Markham L, Vanamala J, Zempleni J. Loss of miRnas during processing and storage of cow’s (Bos taurus) milk. J Agric Food Chem. 2015;63(2):588–592. doi:10.1021/jf505526w.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moossavi S, Azad MB. Origins of human milk microbiota: new evidence and arising questions. Gut Microbes. 2020;12(1):1667722. doi:10.1080/19490976.2019.1667722.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantziari A, Rautava S. Factors influencing the microbial composition of human milk. Semin Perinatol. 2021;45(8):151507 doi:10.1016/j.semperi.2021.151507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fehr K, Moossavi S, Sbihi H, Boutin RCT, Bode L, Robertson B, Yonemitsu C, Field CJ, Becker AB, Mandhane PJ, et al. Breastmilk feeding practices are associated with the co-occurrence of bacteria in mothers’ milk and the infant gut: the CHILD cohort study. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;28(2):285–297. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.06.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittard WB, Geddes KM, Brown S, Mintz S, Hulsey TC. Bacterial contamination of human milk: container type and method of expression. Am J Perinatol. 1991;8(1):25–27. doi:10.1055/s-2007-999332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Guidelines on optimal feeding of low birth-weight infants in low- and middle-income countries. World Health Organization. Geneva: WHO; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Fang MT, Chatzixiros E, Grummer-Strawn L, Engmann C, Israel-Ballard K, Mansen K, O’connor DL, Unger S, Herson M, Weaver G, et al. Developing global guidance on human milk banking. Bull World Health Organ. 2021;99(12):892–900. doi:10.2471/BLT.21.286943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Permanyer M, Castellote C, Ramírez-Santana C, Audí C, Pérez-Cano FJ, Castell M, López-Sabater MC, Franch À. Maintenance of breast milk immunoglobulin a after high-pressure processing. J Dairy Sci. 2010;93(3):877–883. doi:10.3168/jds.2009-2643.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin CR, Ling PR, Blackburn GL. Review of Infant Feeding: key Features of Breast Milk and Infant Formula. Nutrients. 2016;8(5):279. doi:10.3390/nu8050279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Codex Alimentarius Commission. Standard for infant formula and formulas for special medical purposes intended for infants. Codex Stan 72 - 1981. Rome, Codex Alimentarius Commission; 2007. p. 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Maryniak NZ, Sancho AI, Hansen EB, Bøgh KL. Alternatives to Cow’s Milk-Based Infant Formulas in the Prevention and Management of Cow’s Milk Allergy. Foods. 2022;11(7):926. doi:10.3390/foods11070926.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumer F, Urraca O, Alonso J, Palencia J, Varea V, Theis S, Rodriguez-palmero M, Moreno-muñoz JA, Guarner F, Veereman G, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of prebiotic enriched infant formula—a randomized controlled trial. Nutrients. 2021;13(4):1276. doi:10.3390/nu13041276.
   Google Scholar
• Azad MB, Nickel NC, Bode L, Brockway M, Brown A, Chambers C, Goldhammer C, Hinde K, McGuire M, Munblit D, et al. Breastfeeding and the origins of health: interdisciplinary perspectives and priorities. Matern Child Nutr. 2021;17(2):e13109. doi:10.1111/mcn.13109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanidad KZ, Zeng MY. Neonatal gut microbiome and immunity. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2020;56:30–37. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2020.05.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laouar A. Maternal Leukocytes and Infant Immune Programming during Breastfeeding. Trends Immunol. 2020;41(3):225–239. doi:10.1016/j.it.2020.01.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabinian A, Sinsimer D, Tang M, Zumba O, Mehta H, Toma A, Sant’angelo D, Laouar Y, Laouar A. Transfer of Maternal Immune Cells by Breastfeeding: maternal Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes Present in Breast Milk Localize in the Peyer’s Patches of the Nursed Infant. PLoS One. 2016;11(6):e0156762. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156762.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arvola M, Gustafsson E, Svensson L, Jansson L, Holmdahl R, Heyman B, Okabe M, Mattsson R. Immunoglobulin-Secreting Cells of Maternal Origin Can Be Detected in B Cell-Deficient Mice1. Biol Reprod. 2000;63(6):1817–1824. doi:10.1095/biolreprod63.6.1817.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Field CJ. The Immunological Components of Human Milk and Their Effect on Immune Development in Infants. J Nutr. 2005;135(1):1–4. doi:10.1093/jn/135.1.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuaillon E, Valea D, Becquart P, Al TY, Meda N, Bollore K, van de PP, Vendrell J-P. Human Milk-Derived B Cells: a Highly Activated Switched Memory Cell Population Primed to Secrete Antibodies. J Immunol. 2009;182(11):7155–7162. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0803107.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atyeo C, Alter G. The multifaceted roles of breast milk antibodies. Cell. 2021;184(6):1486–1499. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sefik E, Geva-Zatorsky N, Oh S, Konnikova L, Zemmour D, McGuire AM, Burzyn D, Ortiz-Lopez A, Lobera M, Yang J, et al. Individual intestinal symbionts induce a distinct population of RORγ+ regulatory T cells. Science. 2015;349(6251):993–997. doi:10.1126/science.aaa9420.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu M, Pokrovskii M, Ding Y, Yi R, Au C, Harrison OJ, Galan C, Belkaid Y, Bonneau R, Littman DR. C-MAF-dependent regulatory T cells mediate immunological tolerance to a gut pathobiont. Nature. 2018;554(7692):373–377. doi:10.1038/nature25500.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohnmacht C, Park J-H, Cording S, Wing JB, Atarashi K, Obata Y, Gaboriau-Routhiau V, Marques R, Dulauroy S, Fedoseeva M, et al. The microbiota regulates type 2 immunity through RORγt + T cells. Science. 2015;349(6251):989–993. doi:10.1126/science.aac4263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonnenberg GF, Artis D. Innate Lymphoid Cell Interactions with Microbiota: implications for Intestinal Health and Disease. Immunity. 2012;37(4):601–610. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2012.10.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baban B, Malik A, Bhatia J, Yu JC. Presence and Profile of Innate Lymphoid Cells in Human Breast Milk. JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(6):594–596. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.0148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oddy WH, Rosales F. A systematic review of the importance of milk TGF-β on immunological outcomes in the infant and young child. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2010;21:47–59. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2009.00913.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sitarik AR, Bobbitt KR, Havstad SL, Fujimura KE, Levin AM, Zoratti EM, Kim H, Woodcroft KJ, Wegienka G, Ownby DR, et al. Breast Milk Transforming Growth Factor β is Associated with Neonatal Gut Microbial Composition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2017;65(3):e60–e67. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000001585.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rautava S, Nanthakumar NN, Dubert-Ferrandon A, Lu L, Rautava J, Walker WA. Breast Milk-Transforming Growth Factor-β2 Specifically Attenuates IL-1β-Induced Inflammatory Responses in the Immature Human Intestine via an SMAD6- and ERK-Dependent Mechanism. Neonatology. 2011;99(3):192–201. doi:10.1159/000314109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Järvinen KM, Suárez-Fariñas M, Savilahti E, Sampson HA, Berin MC. Immune factors in breast milk related to infant milk allergy are independent of maternal atopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135(5):1390–1393. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.10.051.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gersting JA, Christensen RD, Calhoun DA. Effects of enterally administering granulocyte colony-stimulating factor to suckling mice. Pediatr Res. 2004;55(5):802–806. doi:10.1203/01.PDR.0000117846.51197.7C.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinall R, Prentice AM, Ngom PT, Ryffel B. Interleukin 7 from Maternal Milk Crosses the Intestinal Barrier and Modulates T-Cell Development in Offspring. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e20812. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020812.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones-Hall YL, Nakatsu CH. The Intersection of TNF, IBD and the Microbiome. Gut Microbes. 2016;7(1):58–62. doi:10.1080/19490976.2015.1121364.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czosnykowska-Łukacka M, Orczyk-Pawiłowicz M, Broers B, Królak-Olejnik B. Lactoferrin in Human Milk of Prolonged Lactation. Nutrients. 2019;11(10):2350. doi:10.3390/nu11102350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manzoni P. Clinical Benefits of Lactoferrin for Infants and Children. J Pediatr. 2016;173:S43–52. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.02.075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellison RT, Giehl TJ. Killing of gram-negative bacteria by lactoferrin and lysozyme. J Clin Invest. 1991;88(4):1080–1091. doi:10.1172/JCI115407.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vega-Bautista A, de la Garza M, Carrero JC, Campos-Rodríguez R, Godínez-Victoria M, Drago-Serrano ME. The Impact of Lactoferrin on the Growth of Intestinal Inhabitant Bacteria. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(19):4707. doi:10.3390/ijms20194707.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oda H, Wakabayashi H, Yamauchi K, Abe F. Lactoferrin and bifidobacteria. Biometals. 2014;27(5):915–922. doi:10.1007/s10534-014-9741-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lönnerdal B, Jiang R, Du X. Bovine lactoferrin can be taken up by the human intestinal lactoferrin receptor and exert bioactivities. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2011;53(6):606–614. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21832946/.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demers-Mathieu V, Huston RK, Markell AM, McCulley EA, Martin RL, Spooner M, Dallas DC. Differences in Maternal Immunoglobulins within Mother’s Own Breast Milk and Donor Breast Milk and across Digestion in Preterm Infants. Nutrients. 2019;11(4):920. doi:10.3390/nu11040920.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takemura T, Eishi Y. Distribution of secretory component and immunoglobulins in the developing lung. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985;131(1):125–130. doi:10.1164/arrd.1985.131.1.125.
   Google Scholar
• Granato A, Chen Y, Wesemann DR. Primary immunoglobulin repertoire development: time and space matter. Curr Opin Immunol. 2015;33:126–131. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2015.02.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donald K, Petersen C, Turvey SE, Finlay BB, Azad MB. Secretory IgA: linking microbes, maternal health, and infant health through human milk. Cell Host Microbe. 2022;30(5):650–659. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2022.02.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dzidic M, Mira A, Artacho A, Abrahamsson TR, Jenmalm MC, Collado MC, Ebisawa M. Allergy development is associated with consumption of breastmilk with a reduced microbial richness in the first month of life. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2020;31(3):250–257. doi:10.1111/pai.13176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer DR, Cebra JJ. Role of maternal antibody in the induction of virus specific and bystander IgA responses in peyer’s patches of suckling mice. Int Immunol. 1995;7(6):911–918. doi:10.1093/intimm/7.6.911.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramanan D, Sefik E, Galván-Peña S, Wu M, Yang L, Yang Z, Kostic A, Golovkina TV, Kasper DL, Mathis D, et al. An Immunologic Mode of Multigenerational Transmission Governs a Gut Treg Setpoint. Cell. 2020;181(6):1276–1290. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.030.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch MA, Reiner GL, Lugo KA, Kreuk LSM, Stanbery AG, Ansaldo E, Seher TD, Ludington WB, Barton GM. Maternal IgG and IgA Antibodies Dampen Mucosal T Helper Cell Responses in Early Life. Cell. 2016;165(4):827–841. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.055.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thai JD, Gregory KE. Bioactive Factors in Human Breast Milk Attenuate Intestinal Inflammation during Early Life. Nutrients. 2020;12(2):581. doi:10.3390/nu12020581.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogier EW, Frantz AL, Bruno MEC, Wedlund L, Cohen DA, Stromberg AJ, Kaetzel CS Secretory antibodies in breast milk promote long-term intestinal homeostasis by regulating the gut microbiota and host gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(8):3074–3079. doi:10.1073/pnas.1315792111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalbermatter C, Fernandez Trigo N, Christensen S, Ganal-Vonarburg SC. Maternal microbiota, early life colonization and breast milk drive immune development in the newborn. Front Immunol. 2021;12:683022. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.683022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinson LF, Trevenen ML, Geddes DT. The viable microbiome of human milk differs from the metataxonomic profile. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4445. doi:10.3390/nu13124445.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moossavi S, Sepehri S, Robertson B, Bode L, Goruk S, Field CJ, Lix LM, de Souza RJ, Becker AB, Mandhane PJ, et al. Composition and variation of the human milk microbiota are influenced by maternal and early-life factors. Cell Host Microbe. 2019;25(2):324–335.e4. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2019.01.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treven P, Mahnič A, Rupnik M, Golob M, Pirš T, Matijašić BB, Lorbeg PM. Evaluation of human milk microbiota by 16S rRNA Gene Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) and Cultivation/MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry identification. Front Microbiol. 2019;10:2612. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piñeiro-Ramos JD, Parra-Llorca A, Ten-Doménech I, Gormaz M, Ramón-Beltrán A, Cernada M, Quintás G, Collado MC, Kuligowski J, Vento M. Effect of donor human milk on host-gut microbiota and metabolic interactions in preterm infants. Clin Nutr. 2021;40(3):1296–1309. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.08.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacho NT, Harrison NA, Parker LA, Padgett KA, Lemas DJ, Marcial GE, Li N, Carr LE, Neu J, Lorca GL. Personalization of the microbiota of donor human milk with mother’s own milk. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:1470. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01470.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marin-Gómez W, Grande MJ, Pérez-Pulido R, Galvez A, Lucas R. Changes in the bacterial diversity of human milk during late lactation period (weeks 21 to 48). Foods. 2020;9(9):1184. doi:10.3390/foods9091184.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil-Campos M, López MÁ, Rodriguez-Benítez MV, Romero J, Roncero I, Linares MD, Maldonado J, López-Huertas E, Berwind R, Ritzenthaler KL, et al. Lactobacillus fermentum CECT 5716 is safe and well tolerated in infants of 1–6 months of age: a randomized controlled trial. Pharmacol Res. 2012;65(2):231–238. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2011.11.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thongaram T, Hoeflinger JL, Chow JM, Miller MJ. Human milk oligosaccharide consumption by probiotic and human-associated bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. J Dairy Sci. 2017;100(10):7825–7833. doi:10.3168/jds.2017-12753.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong HY, Tan LTH, Law JWF, Hong KW, Ratnasingam V, Ab Mutalib NS, Lee LH, Letchumanan V. Exploring the potential of human milk and formula milk on infants’ gut and health. Nutrients. 2022;14(17):3554. doi:10.3390/nu14173554.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maldonado J, Cañabate F, Sempere L, Vela F, Sánchez AR, Narbona E, López-Huertas E, Geerlings A, Valero AD, Olivares M, et al. Human milk probiotic lactobacillus fermentum CECT5716 reduces the incidence of gastrointestinal and upper respiratory tract infections in infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2012;54(1):55–61. doi:10.1097/MPG.0b013e3182333f18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi C, Xue Y, Liu R, Wang Y, Lv N, Zeng H, Buys N, Zhu B, Sun J, Yin C. Effects of a formula with a probiotic Bifidobacterium lactis supplement on the gut microbiota of low birth weight infants. Eur J Nutr. 2019;59(4):1493–1503. doi:10.1007/s00394-019-02006-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esaiassen E, Hjerde E, Cavanagh JP, Pedersen T, Andresen JH, Rettedal SI, Støen R, Nakstad B, Willassen NP, Klingenberg C. Effects of probiotic supplementation on the gut microbiota and antibiotic resistome development in preterm infants. Front Pediatr. 2018;6:347. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doron S, Snydman DR. Risk and safety of probiotics. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:S129–S134. doi:10.1093/cid/civ085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quin C, Estaki M, Vollman DM, Barnett JA, Gill SK, Gibson DL. Probiotic supplementation and associated infant gut microbiome and health: a cautionary retrospective clinical comparison. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):8283. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-26423-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samara J, Moossavi S, Alshaikh B, Ortega VA, Pettersen VK, Ferdous T, Hoops SL, Soraisham A, Vayalumkal J, Dersch-Mills D, et al. Supplementation with a probiotic mixture accelerates gut microbiome maturation and reduces intestinal inflammation in extremely preterm infants. Cell Host Microbe. 2022;30(5):696–711.e5. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2022.04.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bode L. Human milk oligosaccharides: every baby needs a sugar mama. Glycobiology. 2012;22(9):1147–1162. doi:10.1093/glycob/cws074.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thum C, Wall CR, Weiss GA, Wang W, Szeto IMY, Day L. Changes in HMO concentrations throughout lactation: influencing factors, health effects and opportunities. Nutri. 2021;13(7):2272. doi:10.3390/nu13072272.
   Google Scholar
• Azad MB, Robertson B, Atakora F, Becker AB, Subbarao P, Moraes TJ, Mandhane PJ, Turvey SE, Lefebvre DL, Sears MR, et al. Human milk oligosaccharide concentrations are associated with multiple fixed and modifiable maternal characteristics, environmental factors, and feeding practices. J Nutr. 2018;148(11):1733–1742. doi:10.1093/jn/nxy175.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arslanoglu S, Moro GE, Boehm G. Early supplementation of prebiotic oligosaccharides protects formula-fed infants against infections during the first 6 months of life. J Nutr. 2007;137(11):2420–2424. doi:10.1093/jn/137.11.2420.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meli F, Puccio G, Cajozzo C, Ricottone GL, Pecquet S, Sprenger N, Steenhout P. Growth and safety evaluation of infant formulae containing oligosaccharides derived from bovine milk: a randomized, double-blind, noninferiority trial. BMC Pediatr. 2014;14:306. doi:10.1186/s12887-014-0306-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandenplas Y, Berger B, Carnielli VP, Ksiazyk J, Lagström H, Luna MS, Migacheva N, Mosselmans JM, Picaud JC, Possner M, et al. Human milk oligosaccharides: 2’-Fucosyllactose (2’-FL) and Lacto-N-Neotetraose (LNnT) in infant formula. Nutrients. 2018;10(9) :1161. doi:10.3390/nu10091161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee H, Padhi E, Hasegawa Y, Larke J, Parenti M, Wang A, Hernell O, Lönnerdal B, Slupsky C. Compositional dynamics of the milk fat globule and its role in infant development. Front Pediatr. 2018;6:313. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calder PC. Functional roles of fatty acids and their effects on human health. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2015;39:18S–32S. doi:10.1177/0148607115595980.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moossavi S, Atakora F, Miliku K, Sepehri S, Robertson B, Duan QL, Becker AB, Mandhane PJ, Turvey SE, Moraes TJ, et al. Integrated analysis of human milk microbiota with oligosaccharides and fatty acids in the child cohort. Front Nutr. 2019;6:58. doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churchward CP, Alany RG, Snyder LAS. Alternative antimicrobials: the properties of fatty acids and monoglycerides. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2018;44(5):561–570. doi:10.1080/1040841X20181467875.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Burillo S, Rajakaruna S, Paliy O. Growth of Bifidobacterium species is inhibited by free fatty acids and bile salts but not by glycerides. AIMS Microbiol. 2022;8(1):53–60. doi:10.3934/microbiol.2022005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobiński R, Bobińska J. Fatty acids of human milk – a review. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2020;92(3-4):280–291. doi:10.1024/0300-9831/a000651.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laitinen K, Hoppu U, Hämäläinen M, Linderborg K, Moilanen E, Isolauri E. Breast milk fatty acids may link innate and adaptive immune regulation: analysis of soluble CD14, prostaglandin E2, and fatty acids. Pediatr Res. 2006;59(5):723–727. doi:10.1203/01.pdr.0000203158.31452.9e.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harbige LS. Fatty acids, the immune response, and autoimmunity: a question of n−6 essentiality and the balance between n−6 and n−3. Lipids. 2003;38(4):323–341. doi:10.1007/s11745-003-1067-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker WA, Iyengar RS. Breast milk, microbiota, and intestinal immune homeostasis. Pediatr Res. 2015;77(1):220–228. doi:10.1038/pr.2014.160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Qu J, Huppertz T, Liu J, Sun Z, Zhou P. Effects of different freeze-thaw processes on the bioactivity and digestibility of human milk. LWT. 2022;156:113025. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2021.113025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kent G. Regulating fatty acids in infant formula: critical assessment of U.S. policies and practices. Int Breastfeed J. 2014;9(1):2. doi:10.1186/1746-4358-9-2.
   Google Scholar
• Looijesteijn E, Brouwer RWW, Schoemaker RJW, Ulfman LH, Ham SL, Jeurink P, Karaglani E, van IJcken WFJ, Manios Y. Effect of bovine milk fat-based infant formulae on microbiota, metabolites and stool parameters in healthy term infants in a randomized, crossover, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Nutr. 2022;8(1):93. doi:10.1186/s40795-022-00575-y.
   Google Scholar
• Schmelzle H, Wirth S, Skopnik H, Radke M, Knol J, Böckler HM, Wells J, Fusch C. Randomized double-blind study of the nutritional efficacy and bifidogenicity of a new infant formula containing partially hydrolyzed protein, a high β-palmitic acid level, and nondigestible oligosaccharides. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;36(3):343–351. doi:10.1097/00005176-200303000-00008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Żółkiewicz J, Marzec A, Ruszczyński M, Feleszko W. Postbiotics—a step beyond pre- and probiotics. Nutrients. 2020;12(8):2189. doi:10.3390/nu12082189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kataria J, Li N, Wynn JL, Neu J. Probiotic microbes: do they need to be alive to be beneficial? Nutr Rev. 2009;67:546–550. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00226.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugahara H, Yao R, Odamaki T, Xiao JZ. Differences between live and heat-killed bifidobacteria in the regulation of immune function and the intestinal environment. Benef Microbes. 2017;8(3):463–472. doi:10.3920/BM2016.0158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zagato E, Mileti E, Massimiliano L, Fasano F, Budelli A, Penna G, Rescigno M . Lactobacillus paracasei CBA L74 metabolic products and fermented milk for infant formula have anti-inflammatory activity on dendritic cells in vitro and protective effects against colitis and an enteric pathogen in vivo. PLoS One. 2014;9(2):e87615. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087615.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beghetti I, Barone M, de Fazio L, Laderchi E, Biagi E, Turroni S, Brigidi P, Pession A, Corvaglia L, Aceti A. A pilot study on donor human milk microbiota: a comparison with preterm human milk microbiota and the effect of pasteurization. Nutrients. 2022;14(12):2483. doi:10.3390/nu14122483.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al Nabhani Z, Dulauroy S, Marques R, Cousu C, Al Bounny S, Déjardin F, Sparwasser T, Bérard M, Cerf-Bensussan N, Eberl G. A weaning reaction to microbiota is required for resistance to immunopathologies in the adult. Immunity. 2019;50(5):1276–1288.e5. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2019.02.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulkarni DH, Gustafsson JK, Knoop KA, McDonald KG, Bidani SS, Davis JE, Floyd AN, Hogan SP, Hsieh C-S, Newberry RD. Goblet cell associated antigen passages support the induction and maintenance of oral tolerance. Mucosal Immunol. 2020;13(2):271–282. doi:10.1038/s41385-019-0240-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulkarni DH, McDonald KG, Knoop KA, Gustafsson JK, Kozlowski KM, Hunstad DA, Miller MJ, Newberry RD. Goblet cell associated antigen passages are inhibited during Salmonella typhimurium infection to prevent pathogen dissemination and limit responses to dietary antigens. Mucosal Immunol. 2018;11(4):1103–1113. doi:10.1038/s41385-018-0007-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knoop KA, Coughlin PE, Floyd AN, Ndao IM, Hall-Moore C, Shaikh N, Gasparrini AJ, Rusconi B, Escobedo M, Good M, et al. Maternal activation of the EGFR prevents translocation of gut-residing pathogenic Escherichia coli in a model of late-onset neonatal sepsis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117(14):7941–7949. doi:10.1073/pnas.1912022117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knoop KA, Newberry RD. Goblet cells: multifaceted players in immunity at mucosal surfaces. Mucosal Immunol. 2018;11(6):1551–1557. doi:10.1038/s41385-018-0039-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark JA, Doelle SM, Halpern MD, Saunders TA, Holubec H, Dvorak K, Boitano SA, Dvorak B. Intestinal barrier failure during experimental necrotizing enterocolitis: protective effect of EGF treatment. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2006;291(5):G938–G949. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00090.2006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siggers J, Sangild PT, Jensen TK, Siggers RH, Skovgaard K, Støy ACF, Jensen BB, Thymann T, Bering SB, Boye M. Transition from parenteral to enteral nutrition induces immediate diet-dependent gut histological and immunological responses in preterm neonates. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2011;301(3):G435–G445. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00400.2010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi SW, Friso S. Epigenetics: a new bridge between nutrition and health. Adv Nutri. 2010;1(1):8–16. doi:10.3945/an.110.1004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Indrio F, Martini S, Francavilla R, Corvaglia L, Cristofori F, Mastrolia SA, Neu J, Rautava S, Russo Spena G, Raimondi F, et al. Epigenetic matters: the link between early nutrition microbiome, and long-term health development. Front Pediatr. 2017;5:178. doi:10.3389/fped.2017.00178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willems R, Krych L, Rybicki V, Jiang P, Sangild PT, Shen RL, Hensel KO, Wirth S, Postberg J, Jenke AC. Introducing enteral feeding induces intestinal subclinical inflammation and respective chromatin changes in preterm pigs. Epigenomics. 2015;7(4):553–565. doi:10.2217/epi.15.13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minekawa R, Takeda T, Sakata M, Hayashi M, Isobe A, Yamamoto T, Tasaka K, Murata Y. Human breast milk suppresses the transcriptional regulation of IL-1β-induced NF-κB signaling in human intestinal cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2004;287(5):C1404–C1411. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00471.2003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melnik BC, John SM, Carrera-Bastos P, Schmitz G. Milk: a postnatal imprinting system stabilizing FoxP3 expression and regulatory T cell differentiation. Clin Transl Allergy. 2016;6:18. doi:10.1186/s13601-016-0108-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu T, Zhang L, Joo D, Sun S-C. NF-κB signaling in inflammation. Signal Transuct Target Ther. 2017;2:17023–. doi:10.1038/sigtrans.2017.23.
   Google Scholar
• Xu J, Shin J, McGee M, Unger S, Bando N, Sato J, Vandewouw M, Patel Y, Branson HM, Paus T, et al. Intake of mother’s milk by very-low-birth-weight infants and variation in DNA methylation of genes involved in neurodevelopment at 5.5 years of age. Am J Clin Nutr. 2022;116(4):1038–1048. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benmoussa A, Provost P. Milk MicroRNAs in health and disease. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2019;18(3):703–722. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12424.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alsaweed M, Lai CT, Hartmann PE, Geddes DT, Kakulas F, Zheng Y. Human milk cells and lipids conserve numerous known and novel miRnas, some of which are differentially expressed during lactation. PLoS One. 2016;11(4):e0152610. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152610.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vélez-Ixta JM, Benítez-Guerrero T, Aguilera-Hernández A, Martínez-Corona H, Corona-Cervantes K, Juárez-Castelán CJ, Rangel-Calvillo MN, García-Mena J. Detection and quantification of immunoregulatory miRnas in human milk and infant milk formula. Biotech (Basel). 2022;11(2):11. doi:10.3390/biotech11020011.
   Google Scholar
• Cortese R, Lu L, Yu Y, Ruden D, Claud EC. Epigenome-microbiome crosstalk: a potential new paradigm influencing neonatal susceptibility to disease. Epigenetics. 2016;11(3):205–215. doi:10.1080/15592294.2016.1155011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fofanova TY, Petrosino JF, Kellermayer R. Microbiome–epigenome interactions and the environmental origins of inflammatory bowel diseases. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2016;62(2):208–219. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000000950.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Q, Cao X. Epigenetic regulation of the innate immune response to infection. Nat Rev Immunol. 2019;19(7):417–432. doi:10.1038/s41577-019-0151-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi K, Sugi Y, Nakano K, Tsuda M, Kurihara K, Hosono A, Kaminogawa S. Epigenetic control of the host gene by commensal bacteria in large intestinal epithelial cells. J Biol Chem. 2011;286(41):35755–35762. doi:10.1074/jbc.M111.271007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagy-Szakal D, Kellermayer R. Colonic mucosal DNA methylation, immune response, and microbiome patterns in Toll-like receptor 2-knockout mice. Gut Microbes. 2011;2(3):178–182. doi:10.4161/gmic.2.3.16107.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma M, Li Y, Stoll ML, Tollefsbol TO. The epigenetic connection between the gut microbiome in obesity and diabetes. Front Genet. 2020;10:1329. doi:10.3389/fgene.2019.01329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uozaki H, Fukayama M. Epstein-Barr virus and gastric carcinoma–viral carcinogenesis through epigenetic mechanisms. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2008;1(3):198–216.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar