Children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder share distinct microbiota compositions

References

• Zeidan J, Fombonne E, Scorah J, Ibrahim A, Durkin MS, Saxena S, Yusuf A, Shih A, Elsabbagh M. Global prevalence of autism: a systematic review update. Autism Res. 2022;15:778–20. doi:10.1002/aur.2696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas R, Sanders S, Doust J, Beller E, Glasziou P. Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e994–1001. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avni E, Ben-Itzchak E, Zachor DA. The presence of comorbid ADHD and anxiety symptoms in autism spectrum disorder: clinical presentation and predictors. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:717. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: a genome-wide analysis. Lancet (London, England). 2013;381:1371–1379. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antshel KM, Russo N. Autism spectrum disorders and ADHD: overlapping phenomenology, diagnostic issues, and treatment considerations. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;21:34. doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1020-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaugler T, Klei L, Sanders SJ, Bodea CA, Goldberg AP, Lee AB, Mahajan M, Manaa D, Pawitan Y, Reichert J, et al. Most genetic risk for autism resides with common variation. Nat Genet. 2014;46:881–885. doi:10.1038/ng.3039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faraone SV, Mick E. Molecular genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2010;33:159–180. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2009.12.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tick B, Bolton P, Happé F, Rutter M, Rijsdijk F. Heritability of autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of twin studies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016;57:585–595. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faraone SV, Larsson H. Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2019;24:562–575. doi:10.1038/s41380-018-0070-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeFilippis M, Wagner KD. Treatment of Autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2016;46:18–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chan E, Fogler JM, Hammerness PG. Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: a systematic review. JAMA. 2016;315:1997–2008. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.5453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Callaghan P. Adherence to stimulants in adult ADHD. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2014;6:111–120. doi:10.1007/s12402-014-0129-y.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Whiteley P, Haracopos D, Knivsberg A-M, Reichelt KL, Parlar S, Jacobsen J, Seim A, Pedersen L, Schondel M, Shattock P. The ScanBrit randomised, controlled, single-blind study of a gluten- and casein-free dietary intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders. Nutr Neurosci. 2010;13:87–100. doi:10.1179/147683010X12611460763922.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelsser LMJ, Frankena K, Toorman J, Savelkoul HFJ, Pereira RR, Buitelaar JK. A randomised controlled trial into the effects of food on ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;18:12–19. doi:10.1007/s00787-008-0695-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, Rodrigues Pereira RD, ADHD. Reviewing the evidence: a systematic review of meta-analyses of double-blind placebo-controlled trials evaluating the efficacy of diet interventions on the behavior of children with ADHD. PLos One. 2017;12:e0169277. doi10.1371/journal.pone.0169277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slykerman RF, Coomarasamy C, Wickens K, Thompson JMD, Stanley TV, Barthow C, Kang J, Crane J, Mitchell EA. Exposure to antibiotics in the first 24 months of life and neurocognitive outcomes at 11 years of age. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 2019;236:1573–1582. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05216-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu J, Lu L, Yu Y, Cluette-Brown J, Martin CR, Claud EC. Effects of intestinal microbiota on brain development in humanized gnotobiotic mice. null. 2018;8:5443. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23692-w.
   Google Scholar
• McElhanon BO, McCracken C, Karpen S, Sharp WG Gastrointestinal symptoms in autism spectrum disorder: ameta-analysis. Pediatrics peds. 2014: 2013–3995.10.1542/peds.2013-3995
   Google Scholar
• McKeown C, Hisle-Gorman E, Eide M, Gorman GH, Nylund CM. Association of constipation and fecal incontinence with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2013;132:e1210–5. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holingue C, Newill C, Lee LC, Pasricha PJ, Daniele Fallin M. Gastrointestinal symptoms in autism spectrum disorder: a review of the literature on ascertainment and prevalence. Autism Res. 2018;11:24–36. doi:10.1002/aur.1854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carissimi C, Laudadio I, Palone F, Fulci V, Cesi V, Cardona F, Alfonsi C, Cucchiara S, Isoldi S, Stronati L. Functional analysis of gut microbiota and immunoinflammation in children with autism spectrum disorders. Dig Liver Dis. 2019;51:1366–1374. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2019.06.006.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rose DR, Yang H, Serena G, Sturgeon C, Ma B, Careaga M, Hughes HK, Angkustsiri K, Rose M, Hertz-Picciotto I .Differential immune responses and microbiota profiles in children with autism spectrum disorders and co-morbid gastrointestinal symptoms. Brain Behav Immun. 2018;70:354–368. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2018.03.025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bundgaard-Nielsen C, Knudsen J, Leutscher PDC, Lauritsen MB, Nyegaard M, Hagstrøm S, Sørensen S. Gut microbiota profiles of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic literature review. Gut Microbes. 2020;11:1172–1187. doi:10.1080/19490976.2020.1748258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler RH, Finegold SM, Bolte ER, Buchanan CP, Maxwell AP, Väisänen M-L, Nelson MN, Wexler HM. Short-term benefit from oral vancomycin treatment of regressive-onset autism. J Child Neurol. 2000;15:429–435. doi:10.1177/088307380001500701.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finegold SM, Dowd SE, Gontcharova V, Liu C, Henley KE, Wolcott RD, Youn E, Summanen PH, Granpeesheh D, Dixon D. Pyrosequencing study of fecal microflora of autistic and control children. Anaerobe. 2010;16:444–453. doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2010.06.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li N, Chen H, Cheng Y, Xu F, Ruan G, Ying S, Tang W, Chen L, Chen M, Lv LL. Fecal microbiota transplantation relieves gastrointestinal and autism symptoms by improving the gut microbiota in an open-label study. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2021;11:1–13. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.759435.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Angelis M, Piccolo M, Vannini L, Siragusa S, De Giacomo A, Serrazzanetti DS, Cristofori F, Guerzoni ME, Gobbetti M, Francavilla R. Fecal microbiota and metabolome of children with autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. PLos One. 2013;8:e76993. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coretti L, Paparo L, Riccio MP, Amato F, Cuomo M, Natale A, Borrelli L, Corrado G, De Caro C, Comegna M. Gut microbiota features in young children with autism spectrum disorders. null. 2018;9:3146. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.03146.
   Google Scholar
• Pulikkan J, Maji A, Dhakan DB, Saxena R, Mohan B, Anto MM, Agarwal N, Grace T, Sharma VK. Gut microbial dysbiosis in Indian children with autism spectrum disorders. Microb Ecol. 2018;76:1102–1114. doi:10.1007/s00248-018-1176-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma B, Liang J, Dai M, Wang J, Luo J, Zhang Z, Jing J. Altered gut microbiota in Chinese children with autism spectrum disorders. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2019;9:40. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2019.00040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plaza-Díaz J, Gómez-Fernández A, Chueca N, Torre-Aguilar M, Gil Á, Perez-Navero J, Flores-Rojas K, Martín-Borreguero P, Solis-Urra P, Ruiz-Ojeda F, et al. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with and without mental regression is associated with changes in the fecal microbiota. Nutrients. 2019;11:337. doi:10.3390/nu11020337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Averina OV, Kovtun AS, Polyakova SI, Savilova AM, Rebrikov DV, Danilenko VN. The bacterial neurometabolic signature of the gut microbiota of young children with autism spectrum disorders. J Med Microbiol. 2020;69:558–571. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.001178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang DW, Adams JB, Gregory AC, Borody T, Chittick L, Fasano A, Khoruts A, Geis E, Maldonado J, McDonough-Means S, et al. Microbiota transfer therapy alters gut ecosystem and improves gastrointestinal and autism symptoms: an open-label study. Microbiome. 2017;5:1–16. doi:10.1186/s40168-016-0225-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li N, Tang J, Zhang J, Liang C, Wang Y, Chen B, Zhao C, Wang J, Zhang G, Zhao D. Correlation of gut microbiome between ASD children and mothers and potential biomarkers for risk assessment. Genomics, Proteomics Bioinforma. 2019;17:26–38. doi:10.1016/j.gpb.2019.01.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharon G, Cruz NJ, Kang DW, Gandal MJ, Wang B, Kim YM, Zing EM, Casey CP, Taylor BC, Lane CJ. Human gut microbiota from autism spectrum disorder promote behavioral symptoms in mice. Cell. 2019;177:1600–1618.e17. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.05.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang D-W, Adams JB, Coleman DM, Pollard EL, Maldonado J, McDonough-Means S, Caporaso JG, Krajmalnik-Brown R. Long-term benefit of microbiota transfer therapy on autism symptoms and gut microbiota. null. 2019;9:5821. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42183-0.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart Campbell A, Needham BD, Meyer CR, Tan J, Conrad M, Preston GM, Bolognani F, Rao SG, Heussler H, Griffith R, et al. Safety and target engagement of an oral small-molecule sequestrant in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: an open-label phase 1b/2a trial. Nat Med. 2022;28:528–534. doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01683-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yap CX, Henders AK, Alvares GA, Wood DLA, Krause L, Tyson GW, Restuadi R, Wallace L, McLaren T, Hansell NK. Autism-related dietary preferences mediate autism-gut microbiome associations. Cell. 2021;184:5916–5931.e17. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pärtty A, Kalliomäki M, Wacklin P, Salminen S, Isolauri E. A possible link between early probiotic intervention and the risk of neuropsychiatric disorders later in childhood: a randomized trial. Pediatr Res. 2015;77:823–828. doi:10.1038/pr.2015.51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prehn-Kristensen A, Zimmermann A, Tittmann L, Lieb W, Schreiber S, Baving L, Fischer A. Reduced microbiome alpha diversity in young patients with ADHD. PLos One. 2018;13:e0200728. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0200728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang H, Zhou Y-Y, Zhou G-L, Li Y-C, Yuan J, Li X-H, Ruan B. Gut microbiota profiles in treatment-naïve children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behav Brain Res. 2018;347:408–413. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.03.036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang L-J, Yang C-Y, Chou W-J, Lee M-J, Chou M-C, Kuo H-C, Yeh Y-M, Lee S-Y, Huang L-H, Li S-C. Gut microbiota and dietary patterns in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;29:287–297. doi:10.1007/s00787-019-01352-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts E, Ederveen THA, Naaijen J, Zwiers MP, Boekhorst J, Timmerman HM, Smeekens SP, Netea MG, Buitelaar JK, Franke B. Gut microbiome in ADHD and its relation to neural reward anticipation. PLos One. 2017;12:e0183509. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szopinska-Tokov J, Dam S, Naaijen J, Konstanti P, Rommelse N, Belzer C, Buitelaar J, Franke B, Aarts E, Vasquez AA. Investigating the gut microbiota composition of individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and association with symptoms. Microorganisms. 2020;8:406. doi:10.3390/microorganisms8030406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richarte V, Sánchez-Mora C, Corrales M, Fadeuilhe C, Vilar-Ribó L, Arribas L, Garcia E, Rosales-Ortiz SK, Arias-Vasquez A, Soler-Artigas M. Gut microbiota signature in treatment-naïve attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Transl Psychiatry. 2021;11. doi:10.1038/s41398-021-01504-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tengeler AC, Dam SA, Wiesmann M, Naaijen J, van Bodegom M, Belzer C, Dederen PJ, Verweij V, Franke B, Kozicz T. Gut microbiota from persons with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects the brain in mice. Microbiome. 2020;8:44. doi:10.1186/s40168-020-00816-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oades RD, Myint A-M, Dauvermann MR, Schimmelmann BG, Schwarz MJ. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and glial integrity: an exploration of associations of cytokines and kynurenine metabolites with symptoms and attention. Behav Brain Funct. 2010;6:32. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu C-C, Xu X, Xiong G-L, Xu Q, Zhou B-R, Li C-Y, Qin Q, Liu CXL, Li H-P, Sun Y-J. Alterations in plasma cytokine levels in Chinese children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 2018;11:989–999. doi:10.1002/aur.1940.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Careaga M, Rogers S, Hansen RL, Amaral DG, Van de Water J, Ashwood P. Immune endophenotypes in children with autism spectrum disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;81:434–441. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Özyurt G, Öztürk Y, Appak YÇ, Arslan FD, Baran M, Karakoyun İ, Tufan AE, Pekcanlar AA. Increased zonulin is associated with hyperactivity and social dysfunctions in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2018;87:138–142. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.10.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emanuele E, Orsi P, Boso M, Broglia D, Brondino N, Barale F, di Nemi SU, Politi P. Low-grade endotoxemia in patients with severe autism. Neurosci Lett. 2010;471:162–165. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.01.033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang W, Uzzau S, Goldblum SE, Fasano A. Human zonulin, a potential modulator of intestinal tight junctions. J Cell Sci. 2000;113(24):4435–4440. doi:10.1242/jcs.113.24.4435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Wilson JS, Bailey ML, Andridge R, Peng J, Jaremka LM, Fagundes CP, Malarkey WB, Laskowski B, Belury MA. Marital distress, depression, and a leaky gut: translocation of bacterial endotoxin as a pathway to inflammation. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018;98:52–60. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.08.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis SJ, Heaton KW. Stool form scale as a useful guide to intestinal transit time. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1997;32:920–924. doi:10.3109/00365529709011203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin H, Peddada SD. Analysis of compositions of microbiomes with bias correction. Nat Commun. 2020;11:1–11. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17041-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Sun Z, Zhang Q, Sun Z, Su Y, Song J, Wang B, Gao R. Preliminary evidence for an influence of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the composition of the gut microbiota and neurodevelopment in three-year-old healthy children. BMC Pediatr. 2021;21:1–13. doi:10.1186/s12887-021-02539-w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly JR, Borre Y, O' Brien C, Patterson E, El Aidy S, Deane J, Kennedy PJ, Neers S, Scott K, Gerard M. Transferring the blues: depression-associated gut microbiota induces neurobehavioural changes in the rat. J Psychiatr Res. 2016;82:109–118. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.07.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Wan J, Rong H, He F, Wang H, Zhou J, Cai C, Wang Y, Xu R, Yin Z. Alterations in gut glutamate metabolism associated with changes in gut microbiota composition in children with autism spectrum disorder. mSystems. 2019;4. doi:10.1128/mSystems.00321-18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wan L, Ge W-R, Zhang S, Sun Y-L, Wang B, Yang G. Case-control study of the effects of gut microbiota composition on neurotransmitter metabolic pathways in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Front Neurosci. 2020;14:127. doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albertsen M, Karst SM, Ziegler AS, Kirkegaard RH, Nielsen PH. Back to basics - the influence of DNA extraction and primer choice on phylogenetic analysis of activated sludge communities. PLos One. 2015;10:1–15. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132783.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Chatelier E, Nielsen T, Qin J, Prifti E, Hildebrand F, Falony G, Almeida M, Arumugam M, Batto JM, Kennedy S. Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers. Nature. 2013;500:541–546. doi:10.1038/nature12506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt J, Buske-Kirschbaum A, Roessner V. Is atopic disease a risk factor for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? A systematic review. Allergy. 2010;65:1506–1524. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2010.02449.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyazaki C, Koyama M, Ota E, Swa T, Mlunde LB, Amiya RM, Tachibana Y, Yamamoto-Hanada K, Mori R. Allergic diseases in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bmc Psychiatry. 2017;17:1–12. doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1281-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Çetin FH, Uçaryılmaz H, Uçar HN, Artaç H, Güler HA, Duran SA, Kılınç K, Türkoğlu S. Regulatory T cells in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a case-control study. J Neuroimmunol. 2022;367:577848. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2022.577848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie, Leslie DL, Kozma L, Martin A, Landeros A, Katsovich L, King RA, Leckman JF. Neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection: a case-control study among privately insured children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;47:1166–1172. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181825a3d.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou R, Xu F, Wang Y, Duan M, Guo M, Zhang Q, Zhao H, Zheng H. Changes in the gut microbiota of children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 2020;13:1614–1625. doi:10.1002/aur.2358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zurita MF, Cárdenas PA, Sandoval ME, Peña MC, Fornasini M, Flores N, Monaco MH, Berding K, Donovan SM, Kuntz T. Analysis of gut microbiome, nutrition and immune status in autism spectrum disorder: a case-control study in Ecuador. Gut Microbes. 2019;00:1–12.
   Google Scholar
• Liu S, Li E, Sun Z, Fu D, Duan G, Jiang M, Yu Y, Mei L, Yang P, Tang Y. Altered gut microbiota and short chain fatty acids in Chinese children with autism spectrum disorder. Scientific reports. 2019;9:287. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36430-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berding K, Donovan SM. Diet can impact microbiota composition in children with autism spectrum disorder. Front Neurosci. 2018;12:515. doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang M, Ma W, Zhang J, He Y, Wang J. Analysis of gut microbiota profiles and microbe-disease associations in children with autism spectrum disorders in China. null. 2018;8:13981. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32219-2.
   Google Scholar
• Zhai Q, Cen S, Jiang J, Zhao J, Zhang H, Chen W. Disturbance of trace element and gut microbiota profiles as indicators of autism spectrum disorder: a pilot study of Chinese children. Environ Res. 2019;171:501–509. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2019.01.060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finegold SM. Desulfovibrio species are potentially important in regressive autism. Med Hypotheses. 2011;77:270–274. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2011.04.032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye F, Gao X, Wang Z, Cao S, Liang G, He D, Lv Z, Wang L, Xu P, Zhang Q. Comparison of gut microbiota in autism spectrum disorders and neurotypical boys in China: a case-control study. Synth Syst Biotechnol. 2021;6:120–126. doi:10.1016/j.synbio.2021.03.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strati F, Cavalieri D, Albanese D, De Felice C, Donati C, Hayek J, Jousson O, Leoncini S, Renzi D, Calabrò A. New evidences on the altered gut microbiota in autism spectrum disorders. Microbiome. 2017;5:24. doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0242-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Filippo C, Cavalieri D, Di Paola M, Ramazzotti M, Poullet JB, Massart S, Collini S, Pieraccini G, Lionetti P. Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2010;107:14691–14696. doi:10.1073/pnas.1005963107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David LA, Materna AC, Friedman J, Campos-Baptista MI, Blackburn MC, Perrotta A, Erdman SE, Alm EJ. Host lifestyle affects human microbiota on daily timescales. Genome Biol. 2014;15:R89. doi:10.1186/gb-2014-15-7-r89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang D-W, Ilhan ZE, Isern NG, Hoyt DW, Howsmon DP, Shaffer M, Lozupone CA, Hahn J, Adams JB, Krajmalnik-Brown, R. Differences in fecal microbial metabolites and microbiota of children with autism spectrum disorders. Anaerobe. 2018;49:121–131. doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.12.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Son JS, Zheng LJ, Rowehl LM, Tian X, Zhang Y, Zhu W, Litcher-Kelly L, Gadow KD, Gathungu G, Robertson CE. Comparison of fecal microbiota in children with autism spectrum disorders and neurotypical siblings in the Simons simplex collection. PLos One. 2015;10:1–19. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0137725.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed SAS, Elhefnawy AM, Azouz HG, Roshdy YS, Ashry MH, Ibrahim AE, Meheissen MA. Study of the gut microbiome profile in children with autism spectrum disorder: a single tertiary hospital experience. J Mol Neurosci. 2020;70:887–896. doi:10.1007/s12031-020-01500-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgar RC. Accuracy of taxonomy prediction for 16S rRNA and fungal ITS sequences. PeerJ. 2018;6:e4652. doi:10.7717/peerj.4652.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell G, Mandy W, Elliott D, White R, Pittwood T, Ford T. Selection bias on intellectual ability in autism research: a cross-sectional review and meta-analysis. Mol Autism. 2019;10(1). doi:10.1186/s13229-019-0260-x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Callahan BJ, McMurdie PJ, Holmes SP. Exact sequence variants should replace operational taxonomic units in marker-gene data analysis. Isme J. 2017;11:2639–2643. doi:10.1038/ismej.2017.119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. ICD-10 : international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. Tenth revision. France: World Health Organization; 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Pappas D. ADHD rating scale-IV: checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation. J Psychoeduc Assess. 2006;24:172–178. doi:10.1177/0734282905285792.
   Google Scholar
• Leark RA, Dupuy TR, Greenberg LM, Kindschi CL, Hughes S. T.O.V.A. professional manual: test of variables of attention continuous performance test. Langley (WA), USA: T.O.V.A Company; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Gotham K, Risi S, Pickles A, Lord C. The autism diagnostic observation schedule: revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. J Autism Dev Disord. 2007;37:613–627. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0280-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poulsen L, Jørgensen SL, Dalsgaard S, Bilenberg N. Danish standardization of the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder rating scale. Ugeskr Laeger. 2009;171:1500–1504.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gotham K, Pickles A, Lord C. Standardizing ADOS scores for a measure of severity in autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009;39:693–705. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0674-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ait Chait Y, Mottawea W, Tompkins TA, Hammami R. Unravelling the antimicrobial action of antidepressants on gut commensal microbes. null. 2020;10:17878. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-74934-9.
   Google Scholar
• Fung TC, Vuong HE, Luna CDG, Pronovost GN, Aleksandrova AA, Riley NG, Vavilina A, McGinn J, Rendon T, Forrest LR. Intestinal serotonin and fluoxetine exposure modulate bacterial colonization in the gut. Nat Microbiol. 2019;4:2064–2073. doi:10.1038/s41564-019-0540-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Berg MM, Benninga MA, Di Lorenzo C. Epidemiology of childhood constipation: a systematic review. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:2401–2409. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00771.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bundgaard-Nielsen C, Hagstrøm S, Sørensen S. Interpersonal variations in gut microbiota profiles supersedes the effects of differing fecal storage conditions. null. 2018;8:17367. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35843-0.
   Google Scholar
• Parada AE, Needham DM, Fuhrman JA. Every base matters: assessing small subunit rRNA primers for marine microbiomes with mock communities, time series and global field samples. Environ Microbiol. 2016;18:1403–1414. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.13023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apprill A, McNally S, Parsons R, Weber L. Minor revision to V4 region SSU rRNA 806R gene primer greatly increases detection of SAR11 bacterioplankton. Aquat Microb Ecol. 2015;75:129–137. doi:10.3354/ame01753.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgar RC. Search and clustering orders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bioinformatics. 2010;26:2460–2461. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btq461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolyen E, Rideout JR, Dillon MR, Bokulich NA, Abnet CC, Al-Ghalith GA, Alexander H, Alm EJ, Arumugam M, Asnicar F. Reproducible, interactive, scalable and extensible microbiome data science using QIIME 2. Nat Biotechnol. 2019;37:852–857. doi:10.1038/s41587-019-0209-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quast C, Pruesse E, Yilmaz P, Gerken J, Schweer T, Yarza P, Peplies J, Glöckner FO. The SILVA ribosomal RNA gene database project: improved data processing and web-based tools. Nucleic Acids Res. 2013;41:590–596. doi:10.1093/nar/gks1219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar