Microbiome-targeting therapies in the neonatal intensive care unit: safety and efficacy

References

• Moore RE, Townsend SD. Temporal development of the infant gut microbiome. Open Biol. 2019;9(9):190128. doi:10.1098/rsob.190128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Healy DB, Ryan CA, Ross RP, Stanton C, Dempsey EM. Clinical implications of preterm infant gut microbiome development. Nature Microbiol. 2022;7(1):22–24. doi:10.1038/s41564-021-01025-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thänert R, Sawhney SS, Schwartz DJ, Dantas G. The resistance within: antibiotic disruption of the gut microbiome and resistome dynamics in infancy. Cell Host & Microbe. 2022;30(5):675–683. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2022.03.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasparrini AJ, Wang B, Sun X, Kennedy EA, Hernandez-Leyva A, Ndao IM, Tarr PI, Warner BB, Dantas G. Persistent metagenomic signatures of early-life hospitalization and antibiotic treatment in the infant gut microbiota and resistome. Nature Microbiol. 2019;4:2285–2297. doi:10.1038/s41564-019-0550-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manuck TA, Rice MM, Bailit JL, Grobman WA, Reddy UM, Wapner RJ, Thorp JM, Caritis SN, Prasad M, Tita ATN, et al. Preterm neonatal morbidity and mortality by gestational age: a contemporary cohort. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;215(1):.e103.1–.e103.14. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2016.01.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alsaied A, Islam N, Thalib L. Global incidence of Necrotizing Enterocolitis: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. BMC Pediatr. 2020;20:344. doi:10.1186/s12887-020-02231-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackam DJ, Sodhi CP. Bench to bedside — new insights into the pathogenesis of necrotizing enterocolitis. Nat Rev Gastroentero. 2022;1–12. doi:10.1038/s41575-022-00594-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warner BB, Deych E, Zhou Y, Hall-Moore C, Weinstock GM, Sodergren E, Shaikh N, Hoffmann JA, Linneman LA, Hamvas A, et al. Gut bacteria dysbiosis and necrotising enterocolitis in very low birthweight infants: a prospective case-control study. Lancet. 2016;387(10031):1928–1936. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00081-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pammi M, Cope J, Tarr PI, Warner BB, Morrow AL, Mai V, Gregory KE, Kroll JS, McMurtry V, Ferris MJ, et al. Intestinal dysbiosis in preterm infants preceding necrotizing enterocolitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Microbiome. 2017;5(1):31. doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0248-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong Y, Speer CP. Late-onset neonatal sepsis: recent developments. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2015;100(3):F257–63. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2014-306213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mank E, van Harskamp D, van Toledo L, van Goudoever JB, Schierbeek H. Simultaneous assessment of intestinal permeability and lactase activity in human-milk-fed preterm infants by sugar absorption test: clinical implementation and analytical method. Clin Nutr. 2021;40(3):1413–1419. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.08.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carl MA, Ndao IM, Springman AC, Manning SD, Johnson JR, Johnston BD, Burnham C-A, Weinstock ES, Weinstock GM, Wylie TN, et al. Sepsis from the Gut: the enteric habitat of bacteria that cause late-onset neonatal bloodstream infections. Clin Infect Dis: Official Publ Infect Dis Society America. 2014;58(9):1211–1218. doi:10.1093/cid/ciu084.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart CJ, Embleton ND, Marrs ECL, Smith DP, Fofanova T, Nelson A, Skeath T, Perry JD, Petrosino JF, Berrington JE, et al. Longitudinal development of the gut microbiome and metabolome in preterm neonates with late onset sepsis and healthy controls. Microbiome. 2017;5(1):75. doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0295-1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fanaro S. Feeding intolerance in the preterm infant. Early Hum Dev. 2013;89:S13–20. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.07.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy K, Ross RP, Ryan CA, Dempsey EM, Stanton C. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics for the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis. Front Nutr. 2021;8:667188. doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.667188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization. Health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including powder milk with live lactic acid bacteria [Internet]. 2001 [accessed 2023 Apr 18]: https://www.iqb.es/digestivo/pdfs/probioticos.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Yu Z-T, Chen C, Newburg DS. Utilization of major fucosylated and sialylated human milk oligosaccharides by isolated human gut microbes. Glycobiology. 2013;23:1281–1292. doi:10.1093/glycob/cwt065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuda S, Toh H, Hase K, Oshima K, Nakanishi Y, Yoshimura K, Tobe T, Clarke JM, Topping DL, Suzuki T, et al. Bifidobacteria can protect from enteropathogenic infection through production of acetate. Nature. 2011;469(7331):543–547. doi:10.1038/nature09646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcon-Giner C, Dalby MJ, Caim S, Ketskemety J, Shaw A, Sim K, Lawson MAE, Kiu R, Leclaire C, Chalklen L, et al. Microbiota supplementation with bifidobacterium and lactobacillus modifies the preterm infant gut microbiota and metabolome: an observational study. Cell Rep Med. 2020;1(5):100077. doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100077.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Falony G, Vlachou A, Verbrugghe K, Vuyst LD. Cross-feeding between bifidobacterium longum BB536 and acetate-converting, butyrate-producing colon bacteria during growth on oligofructose. Appl Environ Microb. 2006;72(12):7835–7841. doi:10.1128/AEM.01296-06.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivière A, Gagnon M, Weckx S, Roy D, Vuyst LD, Schloss PD. Mutual cross-feeding interactions between bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum NCC2705 and eubacterium rectale ATCC 33656 explain the bifidogenic and butyrogenic effects of arabinoxylan oligosaccharides. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2015;81(22):7767–7781. doi:10.1128/AEM.02089-15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan SH, Louis P, Flint HJ. Lactate-utilizing bacteria, isolated from human feces, that produce butyrate as a major fermentation product. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004;70(10):5810–5817. doi:10.1128/AEM.70.10.5810-5817.2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mack DR, Michail S, Wei S, McDougall L, Hollingsworth MA. Probiotics inhibit enteropathogenic E. coliadherence in vitro by inducing intestinal mucin gene expression. Am J Physiol-Gastr L. 1999;276(4):G941–50. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.1999.276.4.G941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernet MF, Brassart D, Neeser JR, Servin AL. Adhesion of human bifidobacterial strains to cultured human intestinal epithelial cells and inhibition of enteropathogen-cell interactions. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1993;59(12):4121–4128. doi:10.1128/aem.59.12.4121-4128.1993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganguli K, Meng D, Rautava S, Lu L, Walker WA, Nanthakumar N. Probiotics prevent necrotizing enterocolitis by modulating enterocyte genes that regulate innate immune-mediated inflammation. Am J Physiol-Gastr L. 2013;304(2):G132–41. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00142.2012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martí M, Spreckels JE, Ranasinghe PD, Wejryd E, Marchini G, Sverremark-Ekström E, Jenmalm MC, Abrahamsson T. Effects of Lactobacillus reuteri supplementation on the gut microbiota in extremely preterm infants in a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Cell Rep Med. 2021;2:100206. doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100206.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manzoni P, Mostert M, Leonessa ML, Priolo C, Farina D, Monetti C, Latino MA, Gomirato G. Oral supplementation with lactobacillus casei subspecies rhamnosus prevents enteric colonization by Candida species in preterm neonates: a randomized study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(12):1735–1742. doi:10.1086/504324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samara J, Moossavi S, Alshaikh B, Ortega VA, Pettersen VK, Ferdous T, Hoops SL, Soraisham A, Vayalumkal J, Dersch-Mills D, et al. Supplementation with a probiotic mixture accelerates gut microbiome maturation and reduces intestinal inflammation in extremely preterm infants. Cell Host & Microbe. 2022;30(5):696–711.e5. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2022.04.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck LC, Masi AC, Young GR, Vatanen T, Lamb CA, Smith R, Coxhead J, Butler A, Marsland BJ, Embleton ND, et al. Strain-specific impacts of probiotics are a significant driver of gut microbiome development in very preterm infants. Nature Microbiol. 2022:1–11. doi:10.1038/s41564-022-01213-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Akker CHP, van Goudoever JB, Szajewska H, Embleton ND, Hojsak I, Reid D, Shamir R. ESPGHAN Working Group for Probiotics, Prebiotics & Committee on Nutrition. Probiotics for preterm infants: a strain-specific systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2018;67(1):103–122. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000001897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan RL, Preidis GA, Kashyap PC, Weizman AV, Sadeghirad B, Group MP Prebiotic, and Synbiotic Work, Chang Y, Florez ID, Foroutan F, Shahid S, et al. Probiotics reduce mortality and morbidity in preterm, low-birth-weight infants: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized trials. Gastroenterology. 2020;159(2):467–480. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi C, Li C, Buys N, Wang W, Yin C, Sun J. Effects of probiotics in preterm infants: a network meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2021;147:e20200706. doi:10.1542/peds.2020-0706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouwehand AC, Invernici MM, Furlaneto FAC, Messora MR. Effectiveness of multi-strain versus single-strain probiotics. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2018;52(Supplement 1):S35–40. doi:10.1097/MCG.0000000000001052.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lawson MAE, O’Neill IJ, Kujawska M, Javvadi SG, Wijeyesekera A, Flegg Z, Chalklen L, Hall LJ. Breast milk-derived human milk oligosaccharides promote Bifidobacterium interactions within a single ecosystem. Isme J. 2020;14:635–648. doi:10.1038/s41396-019-0553-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barratt MJ, Nuzhat S, Ahsan K, Frese SA, Arzamasov AA, Sarker SA, Islam MM, Palit P, Islam MR, Hibberd MC, et al. Bifidobacterium infantis treatment promotes weight gain in Bangladeshi infants with severe acute malnutrition. Sci Transl Med. 2022;14(640):eabk1107. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abk1107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharif S, Meader N, Oddie SJ, Rojas-Reyes MX, McGuire W. Probiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Db Syst Rev. 2020;2020(10): CD005496. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005496.pub5.
   Google Scholar
• Athalye-Jape G, Esvaran M, Patole S, Simmer K, Nathan E, Doherty D, Keil A, Rao S, Chen L, Chandrasekaran L, et al. Effect of single versus multistrain probiotic in extremely preterm infants: a randomised trial. Bmj Open Gastroenterol. 2022;9(1):e000811. doi:10.1136/bmjgast-2021-000811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priyadarshi A, Lowe G, Saddi V, Trivedi A, Luig M, Tracy M. Clinical outcomes of single vs. two-strain probiotic prophylaxis for prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. Frontiers Pediatrics. 2021;9:729535. doi:10.3389/fped.2021.729535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiao X, Fu M-D, Wang Y-Y, Xue J, Zhang Y. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus for preventing necrotizing enterocolitis in very-low-birth-weight preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World J Pediatr. 2020;16:135–142. doi:10.1007/s12519-019-00297-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas JP, Raine T, Reddy S, Belteki G. Probiotics for the prevention of necrotising enterocolitis in very low‐birth‐weight infants: a meta‐analysis and systematic review. Acta Paediatr. 2017;106:1729–1741. doi:10.1111/apa.13902.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang H-Y, Chen J-H, Chang J-H, Lin H-C, Lin C-Y, Peng C-C, Hills RK. Multiple strains probiotics appear to be the most effective probiotics in the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis and mortality: an updated meta-analysis. Plos One. 2017;12(2):e0171579. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoyos AB. Reduced incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis associated with enteral administration of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium infantis to neonates in an intensive care unit. Int J Infect Dis. 1999;3(4):197–202. doi:10.1016/S1201-9712(99)90024-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walsh MC, Kliegman RM. Necrotizing enterocolitis: treatment based on staging criteria. Pediatr Clin N Am. 1986;33(1):179–201. doi:10.1016/S0031-3955(16)34975-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun J, Marwah G, Westgarth M, Buys N, Ellwood D, Gray PH. Effects of probiotics on necrotizing enterocolitis, sepsis, intraventricular hemorrhage, mortality, length of hospital stay, and weight gain in very preterm infants: a meta-analysis. Adv Nutrition Int Rev J. 2017;8(5):749–763. doi:10.3945/an.116.014605.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs SE, Tobin JM, Opie GF, Donath S, Tabrizi SN, Pirotta M, Morley CJ, Garland SM, Group PS. Probiotic effects on late-onset sepsis in very preterm infants: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2013;132(6):1055–1062. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denkel LA, Schwab F, Garten L, Geffers C, Gastmeier P, Piening B, Kollmann TR. Protective effect of dual-strain probiotics in preterm infants: a multi-center time series analysis. Plos One. 2016;11(6):e0158136. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poindexter B, Cummings J, Hand I, Adams-Chapman I, Aucott SW, Puopolo KM, Goldsmith JP, Kaufman D, Martin C, Mowitz M. AAP COMMITTEE on FETUS and NEWBORN. Use of probiotics in preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2021;147(6):e2021051485. doi:10.1542/peds.2021-051485.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tobias J, Olyaei A, Laraway B, Jordan BK, Dickinson SL, Golzarri-Arroyo L, Fialkowski E, Owora A, Scottoline B. Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis EVC001 administration is associated with a significant reduction in the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatrics. 2022;244:64–71.e2. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.12.070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Hosni M, Duenas M, Hawk M, Stewart LA, Borghese RA, Cahoon M, Atwood L, Howard D, Ferrelli K, Soll R. Probiotics-supplemented feeding in extremely low-birth-weight infants. J Perinatol. 2012;32:253–259. doi:10.1038/jp.2011.51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh B, Shah PS, Afifi J, Simpson CD, Mitra S, Dow K, El-Naggar W, Investigators CNN. Probiotics for preterm infants: a national retrospective cohort study. J Perinatol. 2019;39(4):533–539. doi:10.1038/s41372-019-0315-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costeloe K, Bowler U, Brocklehurst P, Hardy P, Heal P, Juszczak E, King A, Panton N, Stacey F, Whiley A, et al. A randomised controlled trial of the probiotic Bifidobacterium breve BBG-001 in preterm babies to prevent sepsis, necrotising enterocolitis and death: the Probiotics in Preterm infantS (PiPS) trial. Health Technol Asses. 2016;20(66):1–194. doi:10.3310/hta20660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane AF, Bhatia AD, Denning PW, Shane AL, Patel RM. Routine supplementation of lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and risk of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatrics. 2018;195:73–79.e2. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.11.055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escribano E, Zozaya C, Madero R, Sánchez L, van Goudoever J, Rodríguez JM, de Pipaon MS. Increased incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis associated with routine administration of Infloran™ in extremely preterm infants. Benef Microbes. 2018;9(5):683–690. doi:10.3920/BM2017.0098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dermyshi E, Wang Y, Yan C, Hong W, Qiu G, Gong X, Zhang T. The “golden age” of probiotics: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and observational studies in preterm infants. Neonatol. 2017;112:9–23. doi:10.1159/000454668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshmukh M, Patole S. Prophylactic probiotic supplementation for preterm neonates—A systematic review and meta-analysis of nonrandomized studies. Adv Nutr. 2021;12(4):1411–1423. doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alshaikh B, Samara J, Moossavi S, Ferdous T, Soraisham A, Dersch-Mills D, Arrieta M-C, Amin H. Multi-strain probiotics for extremely preterm infants: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatr Res. 2022;92(6):1663–1670. doi:10.1038/s41390-022-02004-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juber BA, Boly TJ, Pitcher GJ, McElroy SJ. Routine administration of a multispecies probiotic containing bifidobacterium and lactobacillus to very low birth weight infants had no significant impact on the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis. Frontiers Pediatr. 2021;9:757299. doi:10.3389/fped.2021.757299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flannery DD, Ross RK, Mukhopadhyay S, Tribble AC, Puopolo KM, Gerber JS. Temporal trends and center variation in early antibiotic use among premature infants. JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1:e180164–e180164. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battersby C, Santhalingam T, Costeloe K, Modi N. Incidence of neonatal necrotising enterocolitis in high-income countries: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2018;103(2):F182. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2017-313880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel RM, Ferguson J, McElroy SJ, Khashu M, Caplan MS. Defining necrotizing enterocolitis: current difficulties and future opportunities. Pediatr Res. 2020;88:10–15. doi:10.1038/s41390-020-1074-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer MP, Chow SSW, Alsweiler J, Bourchier D, Broadbent R, Knight D, Lynn AM, Patel H. Probiotics for prevention of severe necrotizing enterocolitis: experience of New Zealand neonatal intensive care units. Frontiers Pediatrics. 2020;8:119. doi:10.3389/fped.2020.00119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aceti A, Maggio L, Beghetti I, Gori D, Barone G, Callegari ML, Fantini MP, Indrio F, Meneghin F, Morelli L, et al. Probiotics prevent late-onset sepsis in human milk-fed, very low birth weight preterm infants: systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2017;9(8):904. doi:10.3390/nu9080904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawh SC, Deshpande S, Jansen S, Reynaert CJ, Jones PM. Prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis with probiotics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PeerJ. 2016;4:e2429. doi:10.7717/peerj.2429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen R, Greisen G, Schrøder M, Brok J. Prophylactic probiotics for preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Neonatology. 2016;109:105–112. doi:10.1159/000441274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AlFaleh K, Anabrees J. Probiotics for prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. Évid Based Child Heal Cochrane Rev J. 2014;9(3):584–671. doi:10.1002/ebch.1976.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wejryd E, Marchini G, Frimmel V, Jonsson B, Abrahamsson T. Probiotics promoted head growth in extremely low birthweight infants in a double‐blind placebo‐controlled trial. Acta Paediatr. 2019;108:62–69. doi:10.1111/apa.14497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs SE, Hickey L, Opie G, Donath S, Opie GF, Anderson PJ, Garland SM, Cheong JLY, Jacobs S, Hickey L, et al. Probiotics, prematurity and neurodevelopment: follow-up of a randomised trial. Bmj Paediatr Open. 2017;1(1):e000176. doi:10.1136/bmjpo-2017-000176.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kulkarni T, Majarikar S, Deshmukh M, Ananthan A, Balasubramanian H, Keil A, Patole S. Probiotic sepsis in preterm neonates—a systematic review. Eur J Pediatr. 2022;181(6):2249–2262. doi:10.1007/s00431-022-04452-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Wang S, Xing Y, Wang H, Fu B, Long M, Cao J. Clinical efficacy of probiotics on feeding intolerance in preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Transl Pediatrics. 2022;11:229–238. doi:10.21037/tp-21-624.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weeks CL, Marino LV, Johnson MJ. A systematic review of the definitions and prevalence of feeding intolerance in preterm infants. Clin Nutr. 2021;40(11):5576–5586. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.09.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eveleens RD, Joosten KFM, de Koning BAE, Hulst JM, Verbruggen SCAT. Definitions, predictors and outcomes of feeding intolerance in critically ill children: a systematic review. Clin Nutr. 2020;39(3):685–693. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.03.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baranowski JR, Claud EC. Necrotizing enterocolitis and the preterm infant microbiome. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2019;1125:25–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallabhaneni S, Walker TA, Lockhart SR, Ng D, Chiller T, Melchreit R, Brandt ME, Smith RM. Centers for Disease Control and prevention (CDC). Notes from the Field. Mmwr Morbidity Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:155–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis ZT, Shani G, Masarweh CF, Popovic M, Frese SA, Sela DA, Underwood MA, Mills DA. Validating bifidobacterial species and subspecies identity in commercial probiotic products. Pediatr Res. 2016;79:445–452. doi:10.1038/pr.2015.244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood MA. Probiotics and the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg. 2019;54(3):405–412. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2018.08.055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertelli C, Pillonel T, Torregrossa A, Prod’hom G, Fischer CJ, Greub G, Giannoni E. Bifidobacterium longum bacteremia in preterm infants receiving probiotics. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60(6):924–927. doi:10.1093/cid/ciu946.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dani C, CC C, IC I, Arena F, Antonelli A, Rossolini GM. Lactobacillus sepsis and probiotic therapy in newborns: two new cases and literature review. Am J Perinatol Reports. 2015;6(01):e25–9. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1566312.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chiang M-C, Chen C-L, Feng Y, Chen C-C, Lien R, Chiu C-H. Lactobacillus rhamnosus sepsis associated with probiotic therapy in an extremely preterm infant: pathogenesis and a review for clinicians. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2021;54(4):575–580. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.029.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Esaiassen E, Cavanagh P, Hjerde E, Simonsen GS, Støen R, Klingenberg C. Bifidobacterium longum subspecies infantis bacteremia in 3 extremely preterm infants receiving probiotics. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(9):1664–1666. doi:10.3201/eid2209.160033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma P, Tomar SK, Goswami P, Sangwan V, Singh R. Antibiotic resistance among commercially available probiotics. Food Res Int. 2014;57:176–195. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2014.01.025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Topcuoglu S, Gursoy T, Ovalı F, Serce O, Karatekin G. A new risk factor for neonatal vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus colonisation: bacterial probiotics. J Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Medicine. 2015;28(12):1491–1494. doi:10.3109/14767058.2014.958462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Akker CHP, van Goudoever JB, Shamir R, Domellöf M, Embleton ND, Hojsak I, Lapillonne A, Mihatsch WA, Canani RB, Bronsky J, et al. Probiotics and preterm infants: a position paper by the european society for paediatric gastroenterology hepatology and nutrition committee on nutrition and the european society for paediatric gastroenterology hepatology and nutrition working group for probiotics and prebiotics. J Pediatric Gastroenterology Nutrition. 2020;70:664–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas DW, Greer FR. American academy of pediatrics committee on nutrition, section on gastroenterology, hepatology, and nutrition. Probiotics and prebiotics in pediatrics. Pediatrics. 2010;126(6):1217–1231. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-2548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Evans CT, Goldstein EJC. Strain-specificity and disease-specificity of probiotic efficacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers Med. 2018;5:124. doi:10.3389/fmed.2018.00124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood MA, Kalanetra KM, Bokulich NA, Lewis ZT, Mirmiran M, Tancredi DJ, Mills DA. A comparison of two probiotic strains of bifidobacteria in premature infants. J Pediatrics. 2013;163(6):1585–1591.e9. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.07.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande G, Rao S, Athalye-Jape G, Conway P, Patole S. Probiotics in very preterm infants: the PiPS trial. Lancet. 2016;388(10045):655. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31271-5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Su GL, Ko CW, Bercik P, Falck-Ytter Y, Sultan S, Weizman AV, Morgan RL. AGA clinical practice guidelines on the role of probiotics in the management of gastrointestinal disorders. Gastroenterology. 2020;159:697–705. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Recommendations for care of the preterm or low-birth-weight infant. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
   Google Scholar
• Szajewska H, Canani RB, Domellöf M, Guarino A, Hojsak I, Indrio F, Vecchio AL, Mihatsch WA, Mosca A, Orel R, et al. Probiotics for the management of pediatric gastrointestinal disorders: position paper of the espghan special interest group on gut microbiota and modifications. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2023;76(2):232–247. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000003633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merenstein D, Pot B, Leyer G, Ouwehand AC, Preidis GA, Elkins CA, Hill C, Lewis ZT, Shane AL, Zmora N, et al. Emerging issues in probiotic safety: 2023 perspectives. Gut Microbes. 2023;15(1):2185034. doi:10.1080/19490976.2023.2185034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson GR, Hutkins R, Sanders ME, Prescott SL, Reimer RA, Salminen SJ, Scott K, Stanton C, Swanson KS, Cani PD, et al. Expert consensus document: the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nat Rev Gastroentero. 2017;14(8):491–502. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2017.75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bode L. Human milk oligosaccharides: every baby needs a sugar mama. Glycobiology. 2012;22:1147–1162. doi:10.1093/glycob/cws074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwab C, Gänzle M. Lactic acid bacteria fermentation of human milk oligosaccharide components, human milk oligosaccharides and galactooligosaccharides. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2011;315(2):141–148. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2010.02185.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thongaram T, Hoeflinger JL, Chow J, Miller MJ. Human milk oligosaccharide consumption by probiotic and human-associated bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. J Dairy Sci. 2017;100(10):7825–7833. doi:10.3168/jds.2017-12753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbas S, Keir AK, Makrides M, Klein LD, Grzeskowiak LE, McPhee AJ, Rumbold AR. Tailoring human milk oligosaccharides to prevent necrotising enterocolitis among preterm infants. Frontiers Nutr. 2021;8:702888. doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.702888.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duar RM, Casaburi G, Mitchell RD, Scofield LNC, Ramirez CAO, Barile D, Henrick BM, Frese SA. Comparative genome analysis of bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis strains reveals variation in human milk oligosaccharide utilization genes among commercial probiotics. Nutrients. 2020;12:3247. doi:10.3390/nu12113247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng N, Gao Y, Zhu W, Meng D, Walker WA, Nie D. Short chain fatty acids produced by colonizing intestinal commensal bacterial interaction with expressed breast milk are anti-inflammatory in human immature enterocytes. Plos One. 2020;15(2):e0229283. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chichlowski M, Lartigue GD, German JB, Raybould HE, Mills DA. Bifidobacteria isolated from infants and cultured on human milk oligosaccharides affect intestinal epithelial function. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2012;55(3):321–327. doi:10.1097/MPG.0b013e31824fb899.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eiwegger T, Stahl B, Haidl P, Schmitt J, Boehm G, Dehlink E, Urbanek R, Szépfalusi Z. Prebiotic oligosaccharides: in vitro evidence for gastrointestinal epithelial transfer and immunomodulatory properties. Pediatr Allergy Immu. 2010;21(8):1179–1188. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2010.01062.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin AE, Autran CA, Szyszka A, Escajadillo T, Huang M, Godula K, Prudden AR, Boons G-J, Lewis AL, Doran KS, et al. Human milk oligosaccharides inhibit growth of group B Streptococcus. J Biol Chem. 2017;292(27):11243–11249. doi:10.1074/jbc.M117.789974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laucirica DR, Triantis V, Schoemaker R, Estes MK, Ramani S. Milk oligosaccharides inhibit human rotavirus Infectivity in MA104 cells. J Nutrition. 2017;147(9):1709–1714. doi:10.3945/jn.116.246090.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson B, Whelan K. Prebiotic inulin‐type fructans and galacto‐oligosaccharides: definition, specificity, function, and application in gastrointestinal disorders. J Gastroen Hepatol. 2017;32:64–68. doi:10.1111/jgh.13700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiciński M, Sawicka E, Gębalski J, Kubiak K, Malinowski B. Human milk oligosaccharides: health benefits, potential applications in infant formulas, and pharmacology. Nutr. 2020;12:266. doi:10.3390/nu12010266.
   Google Scholar
• Westerbeek EAM, Slump RA, Lafeber HN, Knol J, Georgi G, Fetter WPF, van Elburg RM. The effect of enteral supplementation of specific neutral and acidic oligosaccharides on the faecal microbiota and intestinal microenvironment in preterm infants. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 2013;32(2):269–276. doi:10.1007/s10096-012-1739-y.
   Google Scholar
• Boehm G, Lidestri M, Casetta P, Jelinek J, Negretti F, Stahl B, Marini A. Supplementation of a bovine milk formula with an oligosaccharide mixture increases counts of faecal bifidobacteria in preterm infants. Archives Dis Child - Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2002;86(3):178F–181. doi:10.1136/fn.86.3.F178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knol J, Boehm G, Lidestri M, Negretti F, Jelinek J, Agosti M, Stahl B, Marini A, Mosca F. Increase of faecal bifidobacteria due to dietary oligosaccharides induces a reduction of clinically relevant pathogen germs in the faeces of formula‐fed preterm infants. Acta Paediatr. 2005;94:31–33. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2005.tb02152.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapiki A, Costalos C, Oikonomidou C, Triantafyllidou A, Loukatou E, Pertrohilou V. The effect of a fructo-oligosaccharide supplemented formula on gut flora of preterm infants. Early Hum Dev. 2007;83:335–339. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.07.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armanian A-M, Sadeghnia A, Hoseinzadeh M, Mirlohi M, Feizi A, Salehimehr N, Torkan M, Shirani Z. The effect of neutral oligosaccharides on fecal microbiota in premature infants fed exclusively with breast milk: a randomized clinical trial. J Res Pharm Pract. 2016;5:27–34. doi:10.4103/2279-042X.176558.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yu X, Xing Y, Liu H, Chang Y, You Y, Dou Y, Liu B, Wang Q, Ma D, Chen L, et al. Effects of a formula with scGOS/lcFOS (9: 1) and Glycomacropeptide (GMP) supplementation on the gut microbiota of very preterm infants. Nutrients. 2022;14(9):1901. doi:10.3390/nu14091901.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas A, Cole TJ. Breast milk and neonatal necrotising enterocolitis. Lancet. 1990;336:1519–1523. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(90)93304-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armanian A-M, Sadeghnia A, Hoseinzadeh M, Mirlohi M, Feizi A, Salehimehr N, Saee N, Nazari J. The effect of neutral oligosaccharides on reducing the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants: a randomized clinical trial. Int J Prev Medicine. 2014;5:1387–1395.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Modi N, Uthaya S, Fell J, Kulinskaya E. A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of the effect of prebiotic oligosaccharides on enteral tolerance in preterm infants (ISRCTN77444690). Pediatr Res. 2010;68:440–445. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e3181f1cd59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasopoulou M, Briana DD, Boutsikou T, Karakasidou E, Roma E, Costalos C, Malamitsi‐Puchner A. Motilin and gastrin secretion and lipid profile in preterm neonates following prebiotics supplementation. Jpen-Parenter Enter. 2015;39(3):359–368. doi:10.1177/0148607113510182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dilli D, Aydin B, Fettah ND, Özyazıcı E, Beken S, Zenciroğlu A, Okumuş N, Özyurt BM, İ̇pek MŞ, Akdağ A, et al. The ProPre-save study: effects of probiotics and prebiotics alone or combined on necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatrics. 2015;166(3):545–551.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.12.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westerbeek EA, van den Berg JP, Lafeber HN, Fetter WP, Boehm G, Twisk JW, van Elburg RM. Neutral and acidic oligosaccharides in preterm infants: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutrition. 2009;91(3):679–686. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi C, Buys N, Li C, Sun J, Yin C. Effects of prebiotics on sepsis, necrotizing enterocolitis, mortality, feeding intolerance, time to full enteral feeding, length of hospital stay, and stool frequency in preterm infants: a meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2019;73:657–670. doi:10.1038/s41430-018-0377-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riskin A, Hochwald O, Bader D, Srugo I, Naftali G, Kugelman A, Cohen E, Mor F, Kaufman B, Shaoul R. The effects of lactulose supplementation to enteral feedings in premature infants: a pilot study. J Pediatrics. 2010;156(2):209–214. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.09.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mihatsch WA, Hoegel J, Pohlandt F. Prebiotic oligosaccharides reduce stool viscosity and accelerate gastrointestinal transport in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr. 2006;95(7):843–848. doi:10.1080/08035250500486652.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marteau P, Seksik P. Tolerance of Probiotics and Prebiotics. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2004;38(Supplement 2):S67–9. doi:10.1097/01.mcg.0000128929.37156.a7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Niele N, van Zwol A, Westerbeek EA, Lafeber HN, van Elburg RM. Effect of non-human neutral and acidic oligosaccharides on allergic and infectious diseases in preterm infants. Eur J Pediatr. 2013;172:317–323. doi:10.1007/s00431-012-1886-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman PM, Cabana M, Gibson GR, Koletzko BV, Neu J, Veereman-Wauters G, Ziegler EE, Walker WA. Potential roles and clinical utility of prebiotics in newborns, infants, and children: proceedings from a global prebiotic summit meeting, New York City, June 27-28, 2008. J Pediatrics. 2009;155(5):S61–70. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.08.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panigrahi P, Parida S, Pradhan L, Mohapatra SS, Misra PR, Johnson JA, Chaudhry R, Taylor S, Hansen NI, Gewolb IH. Long-term colonization of a lactobacillus plantarum synbiotic preparation in the neonatal gut. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;47(1):45–53. doi:10.1097/MPG.0b013e31815a5f2c.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panigrahi P, Parida S, Nanda NC, Satpathy R, Pradhan L, Chandel DS, Baccaglini L, Mohapatra A, Mohapatra SS, Misra PR, et al. A randomized synbiotic trial to prevent sepsis among infants in rural India. Nature. 2017;548(7668):407–412. doi:10.1038/nature23480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nandhini LP, Biswal N, Adhisivam B, Mandal J, VBhat B, Mathai B. Synbiotics for decreasing incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis among preterm neonates – a randomized controlled trial. J Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Medicine. 2015;29(5):821–825. doi:10.3109/14767058.2015.1019854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharif S, Heath PT, Oddie SJ, McGuire W. Synbiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Db Syst Rev. 2022;2022(3) :CD014067. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD014067.pub2.
   Google Scholar
• Lin H-C, Su B-H, Chen A-C, Lin T-W, Tsai C-H, Yeh T-F, Oh W. Oral probiotics reduce the incidence and severity of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1–4. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin H-C, Hsu C-H, Chen H-L, Chung M-Y, Hsu J-F, Lien R, Tsao L-Y, Chen C-H, Su B-H. Oral probiotics prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight preterm infants: a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2008;122:693–700. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-3007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samanta M, Sarkar M, Ghosh P, Ghosh JK, Sinha MK, Chatterjee S. Prophylactic probiotics for prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight newborns. J Trop Pediatrics. 2009;55(2):128–131. doi:10.1093/tropej/fmn091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rougé C, Piloquet H, Butel M-J, Berger B, Rochat F, Ferraris L, Robert CD, Legrand A, de la Cochetière M-F, N’Guyen J-M, et al. Oral supplementation with probiotics in very-low-birth-weight preterm infants: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutrition. 2009;89(6):1828–1835. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braga TD, da Silva GAP, de Lira PIC, de Carvalho Lima M. Efficacy of Bifidobacterium breve and Lactobacillus casei oral supplementation on necrotizing enterocolitis in very-low-birth-weight preterm infants: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutrition. 2010;93(1):81–86. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2010.29799.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy A, Chaudhuri J, Sarkar D, Ghosh P, Chakraborty S. Role of enteric supplementation of probiotics on late-onset sepsis by candida species in preterm low birth weight neonates: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. North Am J Medical Sci. 2014;6(1):50–57. doi:10.4103/1947-2714.125870.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saengtawesin V, Tangpolkaiwalsak R, Kanjanapattankul W. Effect of oral probiotics supplementation in the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis among very low birth weight preterm infants. J Medical Assoc Thail Chotmaihet Thangphaet. 2014;97:S20–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Niekerk EV, Nel DG, Blaauw R, Kirsten GF. Probiotics reduce necrotizing enterocolitis severity in HIV-exposed premature infants. J Trop Pediatrics. 2015;61(3):155–164. doi:10.1093/tropej/fmv004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mihatsch WA, Vossbeck S, Eikmanns B, Hoegel J, Pohlandt F. Effect of Bifidobacterium lactis on the incidence of nosocomial infections in very-low-birth-weight infants: a randomized controlled trial. Neonatology. 2010;98(2):156–163. doi:10.1159/000280291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stratiki Z, Costalos C, Sevastiadou S, Kastanidou O, Skouroliakou M, Giakoumatou A, Petrohilou V. The effect of a bifidobacter supplemented bovine milk on intestinal permeability of preterm infants. Early Hum Dev. 2007;83(9):575–579. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.12.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hays S, Jacquot A, Gauthier H, Kempf C, Beissel A, Pidoux O, Jumas-Bilak E, Decullier E, Lachambre E, Beck L, et al. Probiotics and growth in preterm infants: a randomized controlled trial, PREMAPRO study. Clin Nutr. 2016;35(4):802–811. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2015.06.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shashidhar A, Rao PNS, Nesargi S, Bhat S, Chandrakala BS. Probiotics for promoting feed tolerance in very low birth weight neonates — a randomized controlled trial. Indian Pediatr. 2017;54:363–367. doi:10.1007/s13312-017-1106-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariharan D, Balasubramanian L, Kannappan V, Veluswami G. 49th annual meeting of the european society for paediatric gastroenterology, hepatology and nutrition. Probiotic supplementation in VLBW preterm infants improves feeding tolerance and reduces risk of gram negative sepsis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2016;62:655.
   Google Scholar
• Arora S, Khurana MS, Saini R. To study the role of probiotics in the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm neonates. Int J Contemp Pediatrics. 2017;4:1792–1797. doi:10.18203/2349-3291.ijcp20173787.
   Google Scholar
• Romeo MG, Romeo DM, Trovato L, Oliveri S, Palermo F, Cota F, Betta P. Role of probiotics in the prevention of the enteric colonization by Candida in preterm newborns: incidence of late-onset sepsis and neurological outcome. J Perinatol. 2011;31:63–69. doi:10.1038/jp.2010.57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rojas MA, Lozano JM, Rojas MX, Rodriguez VA, Rondon MA, Bastidas JA, Perez LA, Rojas C, Ovalle O, Garcia-Harker JE, et al. Prophylactic probiotics to prevent death and nosocomial infection in preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2012;130(5):e1113–20. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-3584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Indrio F, Riezzo G, Tafuri S, Ficarella M, Carlucci B, Bisceglia M, Polimeno L, Francavilla R. Probiotic supplementation in preterm: feeding intolerance and hospital cost. Nutrients. 2017;9:965. doi:10.3390/nu9090965.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oncel MY, Sari FN, Arayici S, Guzoglu N, Erdeve O, Uras N, Oguz SS, Dilmen U. Lactobacillus Reuteri for the prevention of necrotising enterocolitis in very low birthweight infants: a randomised controlled trial. Archives Dis Child - Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2014;99(2):F110. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2013-304745.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernández-Enríquez NP, Rosas-Sumano AB, Monzoy-Ventre MA, Galicia-Flores L. Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 en la prevención de enterocolitis necrosante en recién nacidos prematuros. Estudio piloto de eficacia y seguridad. Revista Mexicana de Pediatría. 2016;83:37–43.
   Google Scholar
• Freedman SB, Xie J, Neufeld MS, Hamilton WL, Hartling L, Tarr PI, Nettel-Aguirre A, Chuck A, Lee B, Alberta Provincial Pediatric Enteric Infection Team (APPETITE), et al. Shiga toxin–producing escherichia coli infection, antibiotics, and risk of developing hemolytic uremic syndrome: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62(10):1251–1258. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbian ME, Patel RM. Probiotics for prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis: where do we stand? Semin Perinatol. 2023;47(1):151689. doi:10.1016/j.semperi.2022.151689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarrett P, Meczner A, Costeloe K, Fleming P. Historical aspects of probiotic use to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in preterm babies. Early Hum Dev. 2019;135:51–57. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2019.05.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbian ME, Buckle R, Denning PW, Patel RM. To start or not: factors to consider when implementing routine probiotic use in the NICU. Early Hum Dev. 2019;135:66–71. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2019.05.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar