Prevalence of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in hospitalized patients in the southwestern province of Saudi Arabia: Confirmation using the GeneXpert analysis

References

• Martin JS, Monaghan TM, Wilcox MH. Clostridium difficile infection: epidemiology, diagnosis and understanding transmission. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;13(4):206–7. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2016.25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couturier J, Davies K, Gateau C, et al. Ribotypes and New virulent strains across Europe. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2018;1050:45–58. (PMID:29383663) doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-72799-8_4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanis JM, Heinlen LD, James JA, et al. Clostridium difficile 027/BI/NAP1 encodes a hypertoxic and antigenically variable form of TcdB. PLOS Pathogens. 2013;9(8):e1003523. (PMID:23935501). doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fatima R, Aziz M. The hypervirulent strain of Clostridium difficile: NAP1/B1/027 - a brief overview. Cureus. 2019;11(1):e3977. doi: 10.7759/cureus.3977
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akerlund T, Persson I, Unemo M, et al. Increased sporulation rate of epidemic Clostridium difficile Type 027/NAP1. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(4):1530–1533. (PMID:18287318) doi: 10.1128/JCM.01964-07
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, et al. Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet (London, England). 2005;366(9491):1079–1084. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67420-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hensgens MP, Keessen EC, Squire MM, et al. Clostridium difficile infection in the community: a zoonotic disease? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18(7):635–645. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03853.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkey PM, Marriott C, Liu WE, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection in a major Chinese hospital: an underrecognized problem in Asia? J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51(10):3308–3313. (PMCID:PMC3811633). doi: 10.1128/JCM.00587-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiuff C, Banks AL, Fitzpatrick F, et al. The need for European surveillance of CDI. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2018;1050:13–25. (PMID:29383661). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-72799-8_2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obaid NA, Alhifany AA. Clostridioides difficile infections in Saudi Arabia: Where are we standing? Saudi Pharm J. 2020;28(9):1118–1121. doi: 10.1016/j.jsps.2020.07.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng JW, Xiao M, Kudinha T, et al. The first two Clostridium difficile ribotype 027/ST1 isolates identified in Beijing, China–an emerging problem or a neglected threat? Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):18834. (PMCID:PMC4703979) (PMID:26740150). doi: 10.1038/srep18834
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alzahrani N, Johani SA. Emergence of a highly resistant Clostridium difficile strain (NAP/BI/027) in a tertiary care center in Saudi Arabia. Ann Saudi Med. 2013;33(2):198–199. doi: 10.5144/0256-4947.2013.198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults and children: 2017 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA). Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66(7):e1–e48. doi: 10.1093/cid/cix1085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surawicz CM, Brandt LJ, Binion DG, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infections. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108(4):478–499. (PMID:23439232). doi: 10.1038/ajg.2013.4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singhal T, Shah S, Tejam R, et al. Incidence, epidemiology and control of Clostridium difficile infection in a tertiary care private hospital in India. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2018;36(3):381–384. PMID: 30429391. doi: 10.4103/ijmm.IJMM_18_340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddle DJ, Dubberke ER. Clostridium difficile infection in the intensive care unit. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2009;23(3):727–743. PMID: 19665092; PMCID: PMC2726831. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2009.04.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buddle JE, Fagan RP. Pathogenicity and virulence of Clostridioides difficile. Virulence. 2023;14(1):2150452. PMID: 36419222, PMCID: PMC9815241. doi: 10.1080/21505594.2022.2150452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Tawfiq JA, Abed MS. Clostridium difficile-associated disease among patients in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2010;8(6):373–376. doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2010.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Tawfiq JA, Rabaan AA, Bazzi AM, et al. Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile-associated disease: epidemiology among patients in a general hospital in Saudi Arabia. Am J Infect Control. 2020;48(10):1152–1157. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2020.01.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shajan SE, Hashim MF, Michael A. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile toxin in diarrhoeal stool samples of patients from a general hospital in eastern province, Saudi Arabia. Int J Med Res Health Sci. 2014;3(2):302–308. doi: 10.5958/j.2319-5886.3.2.064
   Google Scholar
• Curry SR, Muto CA, Schlackman JL, et al. Use of multilocus variable number of tandem repeats analysis genotyping to determine the role of asymptomatic carriers in Clostridium difficile transmission. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(8):1094–1102. PMID: 23881150; PMCID: PMC3783061. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh M, Vaishnavi C, Kochhar R, et al. Toxigenic Clostridium difficile isolates from clinically significant diarrhoea in patients from a tertiary care centre. Indian J Med Res. 2017;145(6):840–846. PMID: 29067987, PMCID: PMC5674555. doi: 10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_192_16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Predrag S, Branislava K, Miodrag S, et al. Clinical importance and representation of toxigenic and non-toxigenic Clostridium difficile cultivated from stool samples of hospitalized patients. Braz J Microbiol. 2012;43(1):215–223. PMID: 24031820; PMCID: PMC3768987. doi: 10.1590/S1517-838220120001000023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markovska R, Dimitrov G, Gergova R, et al. Clostridioides difficile, a New “Superbug”. Microorganisms. 2023;11(4):845. PMID: 37110267: PMCID: PMC10140992. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms11040845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alzouby S, Baig K, Alrabiah F, et al. Clostridioides difficile infection: incidence and risk factors in a tertiary care facility in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. J Infect Public Health. 2020;13(7):1012–1017. doi: 10.1016/j.jiph.2019.10.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahlmann J, Schönberg M, Herrmann M, et al. Detection of nosocomial Clostridium difficile infections with toxigenic strains despite negative toxin a and B testing on stool samples. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(9):O590–O592. doi: 10.1111/1469-0691.12558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar