866
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Basic Research Article

No association between war-related trauma or PTSD symptom severity and epigenome-wide DNA methylation in Burundian refugees

No hay Asociación entre el trauma relacionado con la Guerra o gravedad de los síntomas de TEPT y la metilación del ADN de todo el epigenoma en refugiados de Burundi

布隆迪难民的战争相关创伤或 PTSD 症状严重程度与全表观基因组DNA 甲基化之间没有关联

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Article: 2228155 | Received 13 Oct 2022, Accepted 02 May 2023, Published online: 05 Jul 2023

References

  • Ainamani, H., Elbert, T., Olema, D., & Hecker, T. (2017). PTSD symptom severity relates to cognitive and psycho-social dysfunctioning – a study with Congolese refugees in Uganda. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1283086. doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1283086
  • Aristizabal, M. J., Anreiter, I., Halldorsdottir, T., Odgers, C. L., McDade, T. W., Goldenberg, A., Mostafavi, S., Kobor, M. S., Binder, E. B., Sokolowski, M. B., & O’Donnell, K. J. (2020). Biological embedding of experience: A primer on epigenetics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(38), 23261–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.1820838116
  • Assenov, Y., Müller, F., Lutsik, P., Walter, J., Lengauer, T., & Bock, C. (2014). Comprehensive analysis of DNA methylation data with RnBeads. Nature Methods, 11(11), 1138–1140. doi:10.1038/nmeth.3115
  • Attanayake, V., McKay, R., Joffres, M., Singh, S., Burkle, F., & Mills, E. (2009). Prevalence of mental disorders among children exposed to war: A systematic review of 7,920 children. Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 25(1), 4–19. doi:10.1080/13623690802568913
  • Blackmore, R., Boyle, J. A., Fazel, M., Ranasinha, S., Gray, K. M., Fitzgerald, G., Misso, M., & Gibson-Helm, M. (2020). The prevalence of mental illness in refugees and asylum seekers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine, 17(9), e1003337. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003337
  • Blackmore, R., Gray, K. M., Boyle, J. A., Fazel, M., Ranasinha, S., Fitzgerald, G., Misso, M., & Gibson-Helm, M. (2020). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The prevalence of mental illness in child and adolescent refugees and asylum seekers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(6), 705–714. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.11.011
  • Boks, M. P., Rutten, B. P. F., Geuze, E., Houtepen, L. C., Vermetten, E., Kaminsky, Z., & Vinkers, C. H. (2016). SKA2 methylation is involved in cortisol stress reactivity and predicts the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after military deployment. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(5), 1350–1356. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.286
  • Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59(1), 20–28. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20
  • Calderón-Villarreal, A., Schweitzer, R., & Kayser, G. (2022). Social and geographic inequalities in water, sanitation and hygiene access in 21 refugee camps and settlements in Bangladesh, Kenya, Uganda, South Sudan, and Zimbabwe. International Journal for Equity in Health, 21(1), 27. doi:10.1186/s12939-022-01626-3
  • Camerota, M., Graw, S., Everson, T. M., McGowan, E. C., Hofheimer, J. A., O’Shea, T. M., Carter, B. S., Helderman, J. B., Check, J., Neal, C. R., Pastyrnak, S. L., Smith, L. M., Dansereau, L. M., DellaGrotta, S. A., Marsit, C. J., & Lester, B. M. (2021). Prenatal risk factors and neonatal DNA methylation in very preterm infants. Clinical Epigenetics, 13(1), 171. doi:10.1186/s13148-021-01164-9
  • Carleial, S., Nätt, D., Unternährer, E., Elbert, T., Robjant, K., Wilker, S., Vukojevic, V., Kolassa, I.-T., Zeller, A. C., & Koebach, A. (2021). DNA methylation changes following narrative exposure therapy in a randomized controlled trial with female former child soldiers. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 18493. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98067-9
  • Cecil, C. A. M., Walton, E., & Viding, E. (2015). DNA methylation, substance use and addiction: A systematic review of recent animal and human research from a developmental perspective. Current Addiction Reports, 2(4), 331–346. doi:10.1007/s40429-015-0072-9
  • Cheng, Q., Morand, E., & Yang, Y. H. (2014). Development of novel treatment strategies for inflammatory diseases—similarities and divergence between glucocorticoids and GILZ. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 5, 169. doi:10.3389/fphar.2014.00169
  • Dunlop, B. W., & Wong, A. (2019). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in PTSD: Pathophysiology and treatment interventions. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 89, 361–379. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.10.010
  • Ertl, V., Pfeiffer, A., Saile, R., Schauer, E., Elbert, T., & Neuner, F. (2010). Validation of a mental health assessment in an African conflict population. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 318–324. doi:10.1037/a0018810
  • Fazel, M., Wheeler, J., & Danesh, J. (2005). Prevalence of serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in western countries: A systematic review. Lancet, 365(9467), 1309–1314. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)61027-6
  • Ford, J. D., Grasso, D. J., Elhai, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2015). Etiology of PTSD. In Posttraumatic stress disorder (2nd ed., pp. 81–132). Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801288-8.00003-0
  • Fraser, H. B., Lam, L. L., Neumann, S. M., & Kobor, M. S. (2012). Population-specificity of human DNA methylation. Genome Biology, 13(2), R8. doi:10.1186/gb-2012-13-2-r8
  • Hammamieh, R., Chakraborty, N., Gautam, A., Muhie, S., Yang, R., Donohue, D., Kumar, R., Daigle, B. J., Zhang, Y., Amara, D. A., Miller, S.-A., Srinivasan, S., Flory, J., Yehuda, R., Petzold, L., Wolkowitz, O. M., Mellon, S. H., Hood, L., Doyle, F. J., … Jett, M. (2017). Whole-genome DNA methylation status associated with clinical PTSD measures of OIF/OEF veterans. Translational Psychiatry, 7(7), e1169. doi:10.1038/tp.2017.129
  • Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Salmen, C., Teicher, M., & Elbert, T. (2016). Harsh discipline relates to internalizing problems and cognitive functioning: Findings from a cross-sectional study with school children in Tanzania. BMC Psychiatry, 16(1), 118. doi:10.1186/s12888-016-0828-3
  • Hodes, G. E., & Epperson, C. N. (2019). Sex differences in vulnerability and resilience to stress across the life span. Biological Psychiatry, 86(6), 421–432. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.028
  • Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. New England Journal of Medicine, 351(1), 13–22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040603
  • Humeniuk, R. E., Henry-Edwards, S., Ali, R. L., Poznyak, V., & Monteiro, M. (2010). The alcohol, smoking and substance involvement screening test (ASSIST). Manual for use in primary care. World Health Organization.
  • Irankunda, P., Heatherington, L., & Fitts, J. (2017). Local terms and understandings of mental health problems in Burundi. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(1), 66–85. doi:10.1177/1363461516689004
  • Katrinli, S., Maihofer, A. X., Wani, A. H., Pfeiffer, J. R., Ketema, E., Ratanatharathorn, A., Baker, D. G., Boks, M. P., Geuze, E., Kessler, R. C., Risbrough, V. B., Rutten, B. P. F., Stein, M. B., Ursano, R. J., Vermetten, E., Logue, M. W., Nievergelt, C. M., Smith, A. K., & Uddin, M. (2022). Epigenome-wide meta-analysis of PTSD symptom severity in three military cohorts implicates DNA methylation changes in genes involved in immune system and oxidative stress. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(3), 1720–1728. doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01398-2
  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Hughes, M., Bromet, E., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048–1060. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012
  • Kim, T. D., Lee, S., & Yoon, S. (2020). Inflammation in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A review of potential correlates of PTSD with a neurological perspective. Antioxidants (Basel), 9(2), 107. doi:10.3390/antiox9020107
  • Klengel, T., & Binder, E. B. (2015). FKBP5 Allele-specific epigenetic modification in gene by environment interaction. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(1), 244–246. doi:10.1038/npp.2014.208
  • Kuan, P.-F., Waszczuk, M. A., Kotov, R., Marsit, C. J., Guffanti, G., Gonzalez, A., Yang, X., Koenen, K., Bromet, E., & Luft, B. J. (2017). An epigenome-wide DNA methylation study of PTSD and depression in World Trade Center responders. Translational Psychiatry, 7(6), e1158. doi:10.1038/tp.2017.130
  • Labonte, B., Azoulay, N., Yerko, V., Turecki, G., & Brunet, A. (2014). Epigenetic modulation of glucocorticoid receptors in posttraumatic stress disorder. Translational Psychiatry, 4(3), e368. doi:10.1038/tp.2014.3
  • Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
  • Langfelder, P., & Horvath, S. (2008). WGCNA: An R package for weighted correlation network analysis. BMC Bioinformatics, 9(1), 559. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-9-559
  • Lebow, M. A., Schroeder, M., Tsoory, M., Holzman-Karniel, D., Mehta, D., Ben-Dor, S., Gil, S., Bradley, B., Smith, A. K., Jovanovic, T., Ressler, K. J., Binder, E. B., & Chen, A. (2019). Glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper “quantifies” stressors and increases male susceptibility to PTSD. Translational Psychiatry, 9(1), 178. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0509-3
  • Logue, M. W., Miller, M. W., Wolf, E. J., Huber, B. R., Morrison, F. G., Zhou, Z., Zheng, Y., Smith, A. K., Daskalakis, N. P., Ratanatharathorn, A., Uddin, M., Nievergelt, C. M., Ashley-Koch, A. E., Baker, D. G., Beckham, J. C., Garrett, M. E., Boks, M. P., Geuze, E., Grant, G. A., … Verfaellie, M. (2020). An epigenome-wide association study of posttraumatic stress disorder in US veterans implicates several new DNA methylation loci. Clinical Epigenetics, 12(1), 46. doi:10.1186/s13148-020-0820-0
  • Mansell, G., Gorrie-Stone, T. J., Bao, Y., Kumari, M., Schalkwyk, L. S., Mill, J., & Hannon, E. (2019). Guidance for DNA methylation studies: Statistical insights from the Illumina EPIC array. BMC Genomics, 20(1), 366. doi:10.1186/s12864-019-5761-7
  • McLellan, A. T., Kushner, H., Metzger, D., Peters, R., Smith, I., Grissom, G., Pettinati, H., & Argeriou, M. (1992). The fifth edition of the addiction severity index. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 9(3), 199–213. doi:10.1016/0740-5472(92)90062-S
  • Mehta, D., Bruenig, D., Carrillo-Roa, T., Lawford, B., Harvey, W., Morris, C. P., Smith, A. K., Binder, E. B., Young, R. M., & Voisey, J. (2017). Genomewide DNA methylation analysis in combat veterans reveals a novel locus for PTSD. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 136(5), 493–505. doi:10.1111/acps.12778
  • Mehta, D., Miller, O., Bruenig, D., David, G., & Shakespeare-Finch, J. (2020). A systematic review of DNA methylation and gene expression studies in posttraumatic stress disorder, posttraumatic growth, and resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33(2), 171–180. doi:10.1002/jts.22472
  • Mesa-Vieira, C., Haas, A. D., Buitrago-Garcia, D., Roa-Diaz, Z. M., Minder, B., Gamba, M., Salvador, D., Gomez, D., Lewis, M., Gonzalez-Jaramillo, W. C., Pahud de Mortanges, A., Buttia, C., Muka, T., Trujillo, N., & Franco, O. H. (2022). Mental health of migrants with pre-migration exposure to armed conflict: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 7(5), e469–e481. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(22)00061-5
  • Mill, J., & Heijmans, B. T. (2013). From promises to practical strategies in epigenetic epidemiology. Nature Reviews Genetics, 14(8), 585–594. doi:10.1038/nrg3405
  • Montalvo-Ortiz, J. L., Gelernter, J., Cheng, Z., Girgenti, M. J., Xu, K., Zhang, X., Gopalan, S., Zhou, H., Duman, R. S., Southwick, S. M., Krystal, J. H., Friedman, M. J., Duman, R. S., Girgenti, M. J., Krystal, J. H., Montalvo-Ortiz, J. L., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2022). Epigenome-wide association study of posttraumatic stress disorder identifies novel loci in U.S. military veterans. Translational Psychiatry, 12(1), 65. doi:10.1038/s41398-022-01822-3
  • Morrison, F. G., Miller, M. W., Logue, M. W., Assef, M., & Wolf, E. J. (2019). DNA methylation correlates of PTSD: Recent findings and technical challenges. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 90, 223–234. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.11.011
  • Müller, F., Scherer, M., Assenov, Y., Lutsik, P., Walter, J., Lengauer, T., & Bock, C. (2019). RnBeads 2.0: Comprehensive analysis of DNA methylation data. Genome Biology, 20(1), 55. doi:10.1186/s13059-019-1664-9
  • Musanabaganwa, C., Wani, A. H., Donglasan, J., Fatumo, S., Jansen, S., Mutabaruka, J., Rutembesa, E., Uwineza, A., Hermans, E. J., Roozendaal, B., Wildman, D. E., Mutesa, L., & Uddin, M. (2022). Leukocyte methylomic imprints of exposure to the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda: A pilot epigenome-wide analysis. Epigenomics, 14(1), 11–25. doi:10.2217/epi-2021-0310
  • Nemeroff, C. B., Bremner, D., Foa, E. B., Mayberg, H. S., North, C. S., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-science review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(1), 1–21. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.07.005
  • Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Klaschik, C., Karunakara, U., & Elbert, T. (2004). A comparison of narrative exposure therapy, supportive counseling, and psychoeducation for treating posttraumatic stress disorder in an African refugee settlement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(4), 579–587. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.4.579
  • Newman, A. M., Liu, C. L., Green, M. R., Gentles, A. J., Feng, W., Xu, Y., Hoang, C. D., Diehn, M., & Alizadeh, A. A. (2015). Robust enumeration of cell subsets from tissue expression profiles. Nature Methods, 12(5), 453–457. doi:10.1038/nmeth.3337
  • Nievergelt, C. M., Maihofer, A. X., Klengel, T., Atkinson, E. G., Chen, C. Y., Choi, K. W., Coleman, J. R. I., Dalvie, S., Duncan, L. E., Gelernter, J., Levey, D. F., Logue, M. W., Polimanti, R., Provost, A. C., Ratanatharathorn, A., Stein, M. B., Torres, K., Aiello, A. E., Almli, L. M., … Koenen, K. C. (2019). International meta-analysis of PTSD genome-wide association studies identifies sex- and ancestry-specific genetic risk loci. Nature Communications, 10(1), 4558. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-12576-w
  • Novik, K. L., Nimmrich, I., Genc, B., Maier, S., Piepenbrock, C., Olek, A., & Beck, S. (2002). Epigenomics: Genome-wide study of methylation phenomena. Current Issues in Molecular Biology, 4(4), 111–128. doi:10.21775/cimb.004.111
  • Odintsova, V., Sudermann, M., Hagenbeek, F., Caramaschi, D., Hottenga, J. J., Pool, R., Dolan, C., Ligthart, L., van Beijsterveldt, C., Willemsen, G., de Geus, E., Beck, J., Ehli, E., Cuellar-Partida, G., Evans, D., Medland, S., Relton, C., Boomsma, D., & van Dongen, J. (2021). Epigenome-wide association study of left-handedness for different tissues and ages. Research Square [Preprint], doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-375556/v1
  • Odintsova, V. V., Hagenbeek, F. A., Suderman, M., Caramaschi, D., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Kallsen, N. A., Ehli, E. A., Davies, G. E., Sukhikh, G. T., Fanos, V., Relton, C., Bartels, M., Boomsma, D. I., van Dongen, J. (2019). DNA methylation signatures of breastfeeding in buccal cells collected in mid-childhood. Nutrients, 11(11), 2804. doi:10.3390/nu11112804
  • Perroud, N., Rutembesa, E., Paoloni-Giacobino, A., Mutabaruka, J., Mutesa, L., Stenz, L., Malafosse, A., & Karege, F. (2014). The Tutsi genocide and transgenerational transmission of maternal stress: Epigenetics and biology of the HPA axis. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 15(4), 334–345. doi:10.3109/15622975.2013.866693
  • Pidsley, R., Wong, C. C. Y., Volta, M., Lunnon, K., Mill, J., & Schalkwyk, L. C. (2013). A data-driven approach to preprocessing Illumina 450K methylation array data. BMC Genomics, 14(1), 293. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-14-293
  • Pynoos, R. S., & Steinberg, A. M. (2013). UCLA PTSD reaction index for children/adolescents – DSM-5. University of California.
  • R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Internet]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/.
  • Ressler, K. J., Mercer, K. B., Bradley, B., Jovanovic, T., Mahan, A., Kerley, K., Norrholm, S. D., Kilaru, V., Smith, A. K., Myers, A. J., Ramirez, M., Engel, A., Hammack, S. E., Toufexis, D., Brass, K. M., Binder, E. B., & May, V. (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder is associated with PACAP and the PAC1 receptor. Nature, 470(7335), 492–497. doi:10.1038/nature09856
  • Ritchie, M. E., Phipson, B., Wu, D., Hu, Y., Law, C. W., Shi, W., Shi, W., & Smyth, G. K. (2015). limma powers differential expression analyses for RNA-sequencing and microarray studies. Nucleic Acids Research, 43(7), e47. doi:10.1093/nar/gkv007
  • Rudahindwa, S., Mutesa, L., Rutembesa, E., Mutabaruka, J., Qu, A., Wildman, D. E., Jansen, S., & Uddin, M. (2020). Transgenerational effects of the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda: A post-traumatic stress disorder symptom domain analysis [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]. AAS Open Research, 1, 10. doi:10.12688/aasopenres.12848.1
  • Sadeh, N., Wolf, E. J., Logue, M. W., Hayes, J. P., Stone, A., Griffin, L. M., Schichman, S. A., & Miller, M. W. (2016). Epigenetic variation at Ska2 predicts suicide phenotypes and internalizing psychopathology. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 308–315. doi:10.1002/da.22480
  • Scharpf, F., Kaltenbach, E., Nickerson, A., & Hecker, T. (2021). A systematic review of socio-ecological factors contributing to risk and protection of the mental health of refugee children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 83, 101930. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101930
  • Scharpf, F., Kyaruzi, E., Landolt, M. A., & Hecker, T. (2019). Prevalence and co-existence of morbidity of posttraumatic stress and functional impairment among Burundian refugee children and their parents. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1676005. doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1676005
  • Scharpf, F., Mkinga, G., Neuner, F., Machumu, M., & Hecker, T. (2021). Fuel to the fire: The escalating interplay of attachment and maltreatment in the transgenerational transmission of psychopathology in families living in refugee camps. Development and Psychopathology, 33(4), 1308–1321. doi:10.1017/S0954579420000516
  • Shawyer, F., Enticott, J. C., Block, A. A., Cheng, I. H., & Meadows, G. N. (2017). The mental health status of refugees and asylum seekers attending a refugee health clinic including comparisons with a matched sample of Australian-born residents. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1), 76. doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1239-9
  • Sheehan, D. V., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, K. H., Amorim, P., Janavs, J., Weiller, E., Hergueta, T., Baker, R., & Dunbar, G. C. (1998). The mini-international neuropsychiatric interview (M.I.N.I): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59(20), 22–33.
  • Smith, A. K., Conneely, K. N., Kilaru, V., Mercer, K. B., Weiss, T. E., Bradley, B., Tang, Y., Gillespie, C. F., Cubells, J. F., & Ressler, K. J. (2011). Differential immune system DNA methylation and cytokine regulation in post-traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 156(6), 700–708. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.31212
  • Smith, A. K., Ratanatharathorn, A., Maihofer, A. X., Naviaux, R. K., Aiello, A. E., Amstadter, A. B., Ashley-Koch, A. E., Baker, D. G., Beckham, J. C., Boks, M. P., Bromet, E., Dennis, M., Galea, S., Garrett, M. E., Geuze, E., Guffanti, G., Hauser, M. A., Katrinli, S., Kilaru, V., … Nievergelt, C. M. (2020). Epigenome-wide meta-analysis of PTSD across 10 military and civilian cohorts identifies methylation changes in AHRR. Nature Communications, 11(1), 5965. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19615-x
  • Snijders, C., Maihofer, A. X., Ratanatharathorn, A., Baker, D. G., Boks, M. P., Geuze, E., Jain, S., Kessler, R. C., Pishva, E., Risbrough, V. B., Stein, M. B., Ursano, R. J., Vermetten, E., Vinkers, C. H., Smith, A. K., Uddin, M., Rutten, B. P. F., & Nievergelt, C. M. (2020). Longitudinal epigenome-wide association studies of three male military cohorts reveal multiple CpG sites associated with post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Epigenetics, 12(1), 11. doi:10.1186/s13148-019-0798-7
  • Steel, Z., Chey, T., Silove, D., Marnane, C., Bryant, R. A., & Van Ommeren, M. (2009). Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes among populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA, 302(5), 537–549. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1132
  • Steel, Z., Silove, D., Phan, T., & Bauman, A. (2002). Long-term effect of psychological trauma on the mental health of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia: A population-based study. Lancet, 360(9339), 1056–1062. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11142-1
  • Taki, F., & de Melo-Martin, I. (2021). Conducting epigenetics research with refugees and asylum seekers: Attending to the ethical challenges. Clinical Epigenetics, 13(1), 105. doi:10.1186/s13148-021-01092-8
  • Teschendorff, A. E., & Zheng, S. C. (2017). Cell-type deconvolution in epigenome-wide association studies: A review and recommendations. Epigenomics, 9(5), 757–768. doi:10.2217/epi-2016-0153
  • Thiagarajah, A. S., Eades, L. E., Thomas, P. R., Guymer, E. K., Morand, E. F., Clarke, D. M., & Leech, M. (2014). GILZ: Glitzing up our understanding of the glucocorticoid receptor in psychopathology. Brain Research, 1574, 60–69. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.06.008
  • Uddin, M., Aiello, A. E., Wildman, D. E., Koenen, K. C., Pawelec, G., de los Santos, R., Goldmann, E., & Galea, S. (2010). Epigenetic and immune function profiles associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(20), 9470–9475. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910794107
  • Vukojevic, V., Kolassa, I.-T., Fastenrath, M., Gschwind, L., Spalek, K., Milnik, A., Heck, A., Vogler, C., Wilker, S., Demougin, P., Peter, F., Atucha, E., Stetak, A., Roozendaal, B., Elbert, T., Papassotiropoulos, A., & de Quervain, D. J.-F. (2014). Epigenetic modification of the glucocorticoid receptor gene is linked to traumatic memory and post-traumatic stress disorder risk in genocide survivors. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(31), 10274–10284. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1526-14.2014
  • Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). National Center for PTSD.
  • Wilker, S., Pfeiffer, A., Kolassa, S., Koslowski, D., Elbert, T., & Kolassa, I. T. (2015). How to quantify exposure to traumatic stress? Reliability and predictive validity of measures for cumulative trauma exposure in a post-conflict population. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 28306. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.28306
  • Wong, Y. T., Tayeb, M. A., Stone, T. C., Lovat, L. B., Teschendorff, A. E., Iwasiow, R., & Craig, J. M. (2022). A comparison of epithelial cell content of oral samples estimated using cytology and DNA methylation. Epigenetics, 17(3), 327–334. doi:10.1080/15592294.2021.1950977
  • World Report. (2017). Burundi | Human Rights Watch. 2017.
  • Yehuda, R., & Bierer, L. M. (2009). The relevance of epigenetics to PTSD: Implications for the DSM-V. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(5), 427–434. doi:10.1002/jts.20448
  • Yehuda, R., & LeDoux, J. (2007). Response variation following trauma: A translational neuroscience approach to understanding PTSD. Neuron, 56(1), 19–32. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.006
  • Zannas, A. S., Wiechmann, T., Gassen, N. C., & Binder, E. B. (2016). Gene–stress–epigenetic regulation of FKBP5: Clinical and translational implications. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 261–274. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.235
  • Zheng, S. C., Breeze, C. E., Beck, S., & Teschendorff, A. E. (2018). Identification of differentially methylated cell types in epigenome-wide association studies. Nature Methods, 15(12), 1059–1066. doi:10.1038/s41592-018-0213-x