MRSA outbreak in a tertiary neonatal intensive care unit in Iceland

References

• Pinto AN, Seth R, Zhou F, et al. Emergence and control of an outbreak of infections due to Panton-Valentine leukocidin positive, ST22 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal intensive care unit. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013;19(7):620–627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lessa FC, Edwards JR, Fridkin SK, et al. Trends in incidence of late-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in neonatal intensive care units: data from the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System, 1995–2004. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28(7):577–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuffre M, Amodio E, Bonura C, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization in a level III neonatal intensive care unit: incidence and risk factors. Am J Infect Control. 2015;43(5):476–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakaki H, Nishioka M, Kanda K, et al. An investigation of the risk factors for infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among patients in a neonatal intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37(7):580–586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang YC, Chou YH, Su LH, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization and its association with infection among infants hospitalized in neonatal intensive care units. Pediatrics. 2006;118(2):469–474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popoola VO, Budd A, Wittig SM, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus transmission and infections in a neonatal intensive care unit despite active surveillance cultures and decolonization: challenges for infection prevention. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(4):412–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang YC, Lien RI, Lin TY. Effect of mupirocin decolonization on subsequent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in infants in neonatal intensive care units. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015;34(3):241–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koser CU, Holden MT, Ellington MJ, et al. Rapid whole-genome sequencing for investigation of a neonatal MRSA outbreak. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(24):2267–2275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price JR, Didelot X, Crook DW, et al. Whole genome sequencing in the prevention and control of Staphylococcus aureus infection. J Hosp Infect. 2013;83(1):14–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundmann H, Aanensen DM, van den Wijngaard CC, et al. Geographic distribution of Staphylococcus aureus causing invasive infections in Europe: a molecular-epidemiological analysis. PLoS Med. 2010;7(1):e1000215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holzknecht BJ, Hardardottir H, Haraldsson G, et al. Changing epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Iceland from 2000 to 2008: a challenge to current guidelines. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48(11):4221–4227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Leeuwen WB, van Pelt C, Luijendijk A, et al. Rapid detection of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus isolates by the MRSA-screen latex agglutination test. J Clin Microbiol. 1999;37(9):3029–3030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frenay HM, Bunschoten AE, Schouls LM, et al. Molecular typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on the basis of protein A gene polymorphism. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996;15(1):60–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shopsin B, Gomez M, Montgomery SO, et al. Evaluation of protein A gene polymorphic region DNA sequencing for typing of Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Clin Microbiol. 1999;37(11):3556–3563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zerbino DR, Birney E. Velvet: algorithms for de novo short read assembly using de Bruijn graphs. Genome Res. 2008;18(5):821–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enright MC, Day NPJ, Davies CE, et al. Multilocus sequence typing for characterization of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible clones of Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(3):1008–1015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kondo Y, Ito T, Ma XX, et al. Combination of multiplex PCRs for staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec type assignment: rapid identification system for mec, ccr, and major differences in junkyard regions. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51(1):264–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zankari E, Hasman H, Cosentino S, et al. Identification of acquired antimicrobial resistance genes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67(11):2640–2644.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Wang T, Onodera Y, et al. Mechanism of quinolone resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Chemother. 2000;6(3):131–139.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wichelhaus TA, Hunfeld KP, Boddinghaus B, et al. Rapid molecular typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by PCR-RFLP. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2001;22(5):294–298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, et al. Basic local alignment search tool. J Mol Biol. 1990;215(3):403–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahl JW, Lemmer D, Travis J, et al. NASP: an accurate, rapid method for the identification of SNPs in WGS datasets that supports flexible input and output formats. Microb Genom. 2016;2(8):e000074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li H, Durbin R. Fast and accurate short read alignment with Burrows–Wheeler transform. Bioinformatics. 2009;25(14):1754–1760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenna A, Hanna M, Banks E, et al. The genome analysis toolkit: a MapReduce framework for analyzing next-generation DNA sequencing data. Genome Res. 2010;20(9):1297–1303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePristo MA, Banks E, Poplin R, et al. A framework for variation discovery and genotyping using next-generation DNA sequencing data. Nat Genet. 2011;43(5):491–498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delcher AL, Phillippy A, Carlton J, et al. Fast algorithms for large-scale genome alignment and comparison. Nucleic Acids Res. 2002;30(11):2478–2483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croucher NJ, Page AJ, Connor TR, et al. Rapid phylogenetic analysis of large samples of recombinant bacterial whole genome sequences using Gubbins. Nucleic Acids Res. 2015;43(3):e15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamura K, Peterson D, Peterson N, et al. MEGA5: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood, evolutionary distance, and maximum parsimony methods. Mol Biol Evol. 2011;28(10):2731–2739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guindon S, Gascuel O. A simple, fast, and accurate algorithm to estimate large phylogenies by maximum likelihood. Syst Biol. 2003;52(5):696–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guindon S, Dufayard JF, Lefort V, et al. New algorithms and methods to estimate maximum-likelihood phylogenies: assessing the performance of PhyML 3.0. Syst Biol. 2010;59(3):307–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAdam PR, Templeton KE, Edwards GF, et al. Molecular tracing of the emergence, adaptation, and transmission of hospital-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(23):9107–9112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundmann H, Hori S, Winter B, et al. Risk factors for the transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an adult intensive care unit: fitting a model to the data. J Infect Dis. 2002;185(4):481–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein ND, Eppes SC, Mackley A, et al. A network model of hand hygiene: how good is good enough to stop the spread of MRSA? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2017;38(8):945–952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman AK, Aucott SW, Milstone AM. Safety of chlorhexidine gluconate used for skin antisepsis in the preterm infant. J Perinatol. 2012;32(1):4–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neri I, Ravaioli GM, Faldella G, et al. Chlorhexidine-induced chemical burns in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 2017;191:262–265.e262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen C, Hart J, Vemgal P, et al. Prospective evaluation of a multi-factorial prevention strategy on the impact of nosocomial infection in very-low-birthweight infants. J Hosp Infect. 2005;61(2):162–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar