References
- Romero R, Sirtori M, Oyarzun E, et al. Infection and labor. V. Prevalence, microbiology, and clinical significance of intraamniotic infection in women with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:817�24
- Locksmith G, Duff P. Infection, antibiotics, and preterm delivery. Semin Perinatol 2001;25:295�309
- Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, AndrewsWW. Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1500�7
- Parry S, Strauss JF III. Premature rupture of the fetal membranes. N Engl J Med 1998;338:663�70
- Arias F, Gonzalez-Ruiz AR, Jacobson RL. Recent advances in the pathophysiology and management of preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1999;11:141�7
- Carroll SG, Philpott-Howard J, Nicolaides KH. Amniotic fluid gram stain and leukocyte count in the prediction of intrauterine infection in preterm prelabour amniorrhexis. Fetal Diagn Ther 1996;11:1�5
- Monif GR. Viruses as teratogens. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1975;18:209�20
- Zeichner SL, Plotkin SA. Mechanisms and pathways of congenital infections. Clin Perinatol 1988;15:163�88
- Brown KE, Young NS. Parvoviruses and bone marrow failure. Stem Cells 1996;14:151�63
- Levy R, Weissman A, Blomberg G, et al. Infection by parvovirus B 19 during pregnancy: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1997;52:254�9
- Tarantal AF, Marthas ML, Gargosky SE, et al. Effects of viral virulence on intrauterine growth in SIV-infected fetal rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). J Acquir Immune Defic SyndrHum Retrovirol 1995;10:129�38
- Bennett WA, Terrone DA, Rinehart BK, et al. Intrauterine endotoxin infusion in rat pregnancy induces preterm delivery and increases placental prostaglandin F2alpha metabolite levels. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;182:1496�501
- Eslick GD, Yan P, Xia HH, et al. Foetal intrauterine growth restrictions with Helicobacter pylori infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002;16:1677�82
- Arechavaleta-VelascoF, Koi H, Strauss JF III, et al. Viral infection of the trophoblast: time to take a serious look at its role in abnormal implantation and placentation? J Reprod Immunol 2002;55:113�21
- Goldenberg RL, Thompson C. The infectious origins of stillbirth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; in press
- Gibbs RS. The origins of stillbirth: infectious diseases. Semin Perinatol 2002;26:75�8
- Brown AS, Susser ES. In utero infection and adult schizophrenia. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002;8:51�7
- O�Callaghan E, Sham P, Takei N, et al. Schizophrenia after prenatal exposure to 1957 A2 influenza epidemic. Lancet 1991;337:1248�50
- Dammann O, Leviton A. Maternal intrauterine infection, cytokines, and brain damage in the preterm newborn. Pediatr Res 1997;42:1�8
- Duggan PJ, Maalouf EF, Watts TL, et al. Intrauterine T-cell activation and increased proinflammatory cytokine concentrations in preterm infants with cerebral lesions. Lancet 2001;358:1699�700
- Yoon BH, Romero R, Yang SH, et al. Interleukin-6 concentrations in umbilical cord plasma are elevated in neonates with white matter lesions associated with periventricular leukomalacia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1433�40
- Yoon BH, Kim CJ, Romero R, et al. Experimentally induced intrauterine infection causes fetal brain white matter lesions in rabbits. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:797�802
- Yoon BH, Jun JK, Romero R, et al. Amniotic fluid inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6, interleukin-1beta, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha), neonatal brain white matter lesions, and cerebral palsy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:19�26
- Yoon BH, Romero R, Park JS, et al. Fetal exposure to an intra-amniotic inflammation and the development of cerebral palsy at the age of three years. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 182:675�81
- Bale JF Jr, Murph JR. Congenital infections andthe nervous system. Pediatr Clin North Am 1992;39:669�90
- Fatemi SH, Cuadra AE, El Fakahany EE, et al. Prenatal viral infectioncauses alterations innNOS expressionin developing mouse brains. Neuroreport 2000;11:1493�6
- Fatemi SH, Emamian ES, SidwellRW, et al. Human influenza viral infection in utero alters glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoreactivity in the developing brains of neonatal mice. Mol Psychiatry 2002;7:633�40
- Fatemi SH, Earle J, Kanodia R, et al. Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood: implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2002;22:25�33
- Benirschke K, Robb JA. Infectious causes of fetal death. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987;30:284�94
- Hankins G, Willinger M, Spong C. Introduction to stillbirth. Semin Perinatol 2003;26:1�2
- Romero R. Prenatal medicine: the child is the father of the man. Prenat Neonat Med 1996;1:8�11
- Howarth ES, Konje JC, Healey KA, et al. Invasive testing for the karyotyping of mid-trimester intrauterine fetal death (IUFD): a pilot study. Prenat Diagn 2002;22:453�5
- SaalHM, Rodis J, Weinbaum PJ, et al. Cytogenetic evaluation of fetal death: the role of amniocentesis. Obstet Gynecol 1987;70:601�3
- Brady K, Duff P, Harlass FE, et al. Role of amniotic fluid cytogenetic analysis in the evaluation of recent fetal death. Am J Perinatol 1991;8:68�70
- Romero R, Quintero R, Nores J, et al. Amniotic fluid white blood cell count: a rapid and simple test to diagnose microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and predict preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;165:821�30
- Pacora P, Chaiworapongsa T, Maymon E, et al. Funisitis and chorionic vasculitis: the histological counterpart of the fetal inflammatory response syndrome. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2002;11:18�25
- Barns SM, Fundyga RE, Jeffries MW, et al. Remarkable archaeal diversity detected in a Yellowstone National Park hot spring environment. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91:1609�13
- Yoon BH, Romero R, Kim M, et al. Clinical implications of detection of Ureaplasma urealyticum in the amniotic cavity with the polymerase chain reaction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:1130�7
- Shim S, Yoon BH, Romero R, et al. The clinical significanceof detecting Ureaplasma urealyticum by PCR in the amniotic fluid of patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;187:S187
- Relman DA, Schmidt TM, MacDermott RP, et al. Identification of the uncultured bacillus of Whipple�s disease. N Engl J Med 1992;327:293�301
- Relman DA, Loutit JS, Schmidt TM, et al. The agent of bacillary angiomatosis. An approach to the identification of uncultured pathogens. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1573�80
- Moyo SR, Tswana SA, NystromL, et al. Intrauterinedeathand infections during pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1995; 51:211�18
- Maleckiene L, Nadisauskiene R, Stankeviciene I, et al. A case-referent study on fetal bacteremia and late fetal death of unknown etiology in Lithuania. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2000;79:1069�74
- Axemo P, Ching C, Machungo F, et al. Intrauterine infections and their association with stillbirth and preterm birth in Maputo, Mozambique. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1993;35: 108�13
- Ahlenius I, Floberg J, Thomassen P. Sixty-six cases of intrauterine fetal death. A prospective study with an extensive test protocol. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1995;74: 109�17
- FolgosaE,Gonzalez C, Osman NB, et al.Acase control study of chorioamniotic infection and histological chorioamnionitis in stillbirth. APMIS 1997;105:329�36
- Romero R, Yoon BH, Mazor M, et al. The diagnostic and prognostic value of amniotic fluid white blood cell count, glucose, interleukin-6,and gramstainin patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169:805�16
- Romero R, Yoon BH, Mazor M, et al. A comparative study of the diagnostic performance of amniotic fluid glucose, white blood cell count, interleukin-6, and gram stain in the detection of microbial invasion in patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;169:839�51
- Kiltz RJ, Burke MS, Porreco RP. Amniotic fluid glucose concentration as a marker for intra-amniotic infection. Obstet Gynecol 1991;78:619�22
- Kirshon B, Rosenfeld B, Mari G, et al. Amniotic fluid glucose and intraamniotic infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 164:818�20
- Romero R, Jimenez C, Lohda AK, et al.Amniotic fluid glucose concentration: a rapid and simple method for the detection of intraamniotic infection in pretermlabor.Am J ObstetGynecol 1990;163:968�74
- Hovatta O, Lipasti A, Rapola J, et al. Causes of stillbirth: a clinicopathologicalstudy of 243 patients. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983;90:691�6
- Rayburn W, Sander C, Barr M Jr, et al. The stillborn fetus: placental histologic examination in determining a cause. Obstet Gynecol 1985;65:637�41
- Ogunyemi D, Jackson U, Buyske S, et al. Clinical and pathologic correlates of stillbirths in a single institution.ActaObstet Gynecol Scand 1998;77:722�8
- Rudbeck RH, Henriques U. Fetal and perinatal infections. A consecutive study. Pathol Res Pract 1992;188:135�40
- Ornoy A, Crone K, Altshuler G. Pathological features of the placenta in fetal death. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1976; 100:367�71
- Olding L. Bacterial infection in cases of perinatal death. A morphological and bacteriological study based on 264 autopsies. Acta Paediatr Scand 1966;Suppl 171: 1
- Tolockiene E, Morsing E, Holst E, et al. Intrauterine infection may be a major cause of stillbirth in Sweden. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2001;80:511�18
- Quinn PA, Butany J, Chipman M, et al. A prospective study of microbial infection in stillbirths and early neonatal death. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;151:238�49
- Moyo SR, Hagerstrand I, Nystrom L, et al. Stillbirths and intrauterine infection, histologicchorioamnionitisandmicrobiological findings. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1996;54:115�23
- Christensen KK. Infection as a predominant cause of perinatal mortality. Obstet Gynecol 1982;59:499�508
- Christensen KK, Christensen P, Hagerstrand I, et al. The clinical significance of group B streptococci. J Perinat Med 1982;10:133�46
- Blanc WA. Pathology of the placenta and cord in ascending and haematogenous infection. In Perinatal Infections. Amsterdam; Ciba Foundation Symposium, 1980
- Tafari N, Ross S, Naeye RL, et al. Mycoplasma T strains and perinatal death. Lancet 1976;1:108�9
- Gerber S, Yih M, Vardhana S, et al. Relation between fetal interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) gene polymorphism and unexplained fetal death. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;187:S58
- Witkin SS, Gerber S, Ledger WJ. Influence of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene polymorphism on disease. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34: 204�9
- Vamvakopoulos J, Green C, Metcalfe S. Genetic control of IL-1beta bioactivity through differential regulation of the IL-1 receptor antagonist. Eur J Immunol 2002;32: 2988�96
- Gomez R, Romero R, Ghezzi F, et al. The fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:194�202
- Romero R, Gomez R, Ghezzi F, et al. A fetal systemic inflammatory response is followed by the spontaneous onset of preterm parturition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:186�93
- Romero R, Mazor M, Brandt F, et al. Interleukin-1 alpha and interleukin-1 beta in preterm and term human parturition. Am J Reprod Immunol 1992;27:117�23
- Jacques SM, Qureshi F, Johnson A, et al. Estimation of time of fetal death in the second trimester by placental histopathological examination. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2003;6: 226�32
- Romero R, Kuivaniemi H, Tromp G. The design, execution, and interpretation of genetic association studies to decipher complex diseases.Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;187:1299�312
- Romero R, Gomez R, Mazor M, et al. The preterm labor syndrome. In Elder M, Romero R, Lamont RF, eds. Preterm Labor. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1997:29�49