1,201
Views
122
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

The Pharmacology and Toxicology of Atypical Antipsychotic Agents

Pages 1-14 | Published online: 28 Feb 2001

REFERENCES

  • Borison R. L. Recent Advances in the Pharmacotherapy of Schizophrenia. Harvard Rev. Psychiatry 1997; 4: 255–271
  • Tandon R., Milner K., Jibson M. D. Antipsychotics from Theory to Practice: Integrating Clinical and Basic Data. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1999; 60: 21–28
  • Brown C. S., Markowitz J. S., Moore T. R., Parker N. G. Atypical Antipsychotics: Part II: Adverse Effects, Drug Interactions, and Costs. Ann. Pharmacother. 1999; 33: 210–217
  • Weiden P., Aquila R., Standard J. Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs and Long-Term Outcome in Schizophrenia. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1996; 57: 53–60
  • Richelson E. Receptor Pharmacology of Neuroleptics: Relation to Clinical Effects. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1999; 60: 5–14
  • Jibson M. D., Tandon R. New Atypical Antipsychotic Medications. J. Psychiatric Research 1998; 32: 215–228
  • Blin O. A Comparative Review of New Antipsychotics. Can. J. Psychiatry 1999; 44: 235–244
  • Kinon B. J., Lieberman J. A. Mechanisms of Action of Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs: A Critical Analysis. Psychopharmacology 1996; 124: 2–34
  • Farde L., Nordstrom A. L., Wiesel G. A., Wiesel F. A., Pauli S., Halldin C., Sedvall G. Positron Emission Tomographic Analysis of Central D1and D2Dopamine Receptor Occupancy in Patients Treated with Classical Neuroleptics and Clozapine: Relation to Extrapyramidal Side Effects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1992; 49: 538–544
  • Lieberman J. A., Mailman R. B., Duncan G., Sikich L., Chakos M., Nichols D. E., Kraus J. E. Serotonergic Basis of Antipsychotic Drug Effects in Schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 1998; 44: 1099–1117
  • Gerlach J., Peacock L. New Antipsychotics: The Pres-ent Status. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1995; 10: 39–48
  • Baldessarini R. J. Drugs and the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders: Psychosis and Anxiety. Goodman & Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, J. G. Hardman, L. E. Limbird, P. B. Molinoff, R. W. Ruddon, A. G. Gilman. 9th Edn., McGraw-Hill, New York 1996; 399–430
  • Seeman P., Lee T., Chau-Wong M., Wong K. Antipsychotic Drug Doses and Neuroleptic Dopamine Receptors. Nature 1976; 261: 717–719
  • Risch S. C. Pathophysiology of Schizophrenia and the Role of Newer Antipsychotics. Pharmacotherapy 1996; 16: 11–14
  • Black J. L., Richelson E. Antipsychotic Drugs: Prediction of Side Effect Profiles Based on Neuroreceptor Data Derived from Human Brain Tissue. Mayo Clin. Proc. 1987; 62: 369–372
  • Kapur S., Remington G. Serotonin-Dopamine Interaction and Its Relevance to Schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 1996; 153: 466–476
  • Snyder S., Greenberg D., Yamamura J. I. Antischizophrenic Drugs and Brain Cholinergic Receptors: Affinity for Muscarinic Sites Predicts Extrapyramidal Effects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1974; 31: 58–61
  • Warner J. P., Barnes T. R.E., Henry J. A. Electrocardiographic Changes in Patients Receiving Neuroleptic Medication. Acta. Psychiar. Scand. 1996; 93: 311–313
  • Gajwani P., Pozuelo L., Tesar G. E. QT Interval Prolongation Associated with Quetiapine (Seroquel) Overdose. Psychosomatics 2000; 41: 63–65
  • Lee A. M., Knoll J. L., Suppes R. The Atypical Antipsychotic Sertindole: A Case Series. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1997; 58: 410–416
  • Brown K., Levy H., Brenner C., Leffler S., Hamburg E. L. Overdose of Risperidone. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1993; 22: 1908–1910
  • Hustey F. M. Acute Quetiapine Poisoning. J. Emerg. Med. 1999; 17: 995–997
  • Duenas-Laita A., Castro-Villamor M. A., Martin-Escudero J. C., Perez-Castrillon J. L. New Clinical Manifestations of Acute Risperidone Poisoning (letter). J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1999; 37: 893–894
  • Drici M. D., Wang W. X., Liu X. K., Woosley R. L., Flockhart D. A. Prolongation of QT Interval in Isolated Feline Hearts by Antipsychotic Drugs. J. Psychopharmacol. 1998; 18: 477–481
  • Rampe D., Murawsky K., Grau J., Lewis E. W. The Antipsychotic Agent Sertindole is a High Affinity Antagonist of the Human Cardiac Potassium Channel HERG. J. Pharm. Exp. Ther. 1998; 286: 788–793
  • Cold J. A., Wells B. G., Froemming J. H. Seizure Activity Associated with Antipsychotic Therapy. DICP 1990; 24: 601–606
  • Devinsky D., Honigfeld G., Patin J. Clozapine-Related Seizures. Neurology 1991; 41: 369–371
  • Alldredge B. K. Seizure Risk Associated with Psychotropic Drugs: Clinical and Pharmacokinetic Considerations. Neurology 1999; 53: S68–S75
  • Ereshefsky L. Pharmacokinetics and Drug Interactions: Update for New Antipsychotics. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1996; 57: 12–25
  • Markowitz J. S., Brown C. S., Moore T. R. Atypical Antipsychotics Part I: Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics, and Efficacy. Ann. Pharmacother. 1999; 33: 73–85
  • Bever K. A., Perry P. J. Olanzapine: A Serotonin-Dopamine-Receptor Antagonist for Antipsychotic Therapy. Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm. 1998; 55: 1003–1016
  • Goren J. L., Levin G. M. Quetiapine, An Atypical Antipsychotic. Pharmacotherapy 1998; 18: 1183–1194
  • Jann M., Grimsley S., Gray E., Chang W. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Clozapine. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1993; 24: 161–176
  • Byerly M. J., DeVane C. L. Pharmacokinetics of Clozapine and Risperidone: A Review of Recent Literature. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1996; 16: 177–187
  • Fang J., Gorrod J. W. Metabolism, Pharmacogenetics, and Metabolic Drug-Drug Interactions of Antipsychotic Drugs. Cellular Molec. Neurobiology 1999; 19: 491–510
  • Litovitz T. L., Klein-Schwartz W., Caravati E. M., Youniss J., Crouch B., Lee S. 1998 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 1999; 17: 435–487
  • Mowry J., Sanftleben J., Smith J. Eighteen Month Retrospective Evaluation of Seroquel Exposures (abstract). J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1999; 37: 631
  • LeBlaye I., Donatini B., Hall M., Krupp P. Acute Overdosage with Clozapine: A Review of the Available Clinical Experience. Pharmaceutical. Med. 1992; 6: 169–178
  • Elian A. A. Fatal Overdose of Olanzepine. Forensic Sci. International 1998; 91: 231–235
  • Stephens B. G., Coleman D. E., Baselt R. C. Olanzapine-Related Fatality. J. Forensic Sci. 1998; 43: 1252–1253
  • Reith D., Monteleone P. R., Whyte I. M., Ebelling W., Holford N. H., Carter G. L. Features and Toxicokinetics of Clozapine in Overdose. Ther. Drug Mon. 1998; 20: 92–97
  • Yip L., Dart R. C., Graham K. Olanzapine Toxicity in a Toddler (letter). Pediatrics 1998; 102: 1494
  • Bond G. R., Thompson J. D. Olanzapine Pediatric Overdose (letter). Ann. Emerg. Med. 1999; 34: 292–293
  • Mady S., Wax P., Wang D., Goetz C., Hadley C., Love R. Pediatric Clozapine Intoxication. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 1996; 14: 462–463
  • Cheslik T. A., Erramouspe J. Extrapyramidal Symptoms Following Accidental Ingestion of Risperidone in a Child. Ann. Pharmacotherapy 1996; 30: 360–363
  • Warden C. R., Pace S. A. Clozapine Overdose in a Child Presenting with Acute Respiratory Arrest (abstract). J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1996; 34: 571
  • Gesell L. B. Toxicity Following a Single Dose of Risperidone for Pediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) [abstract]. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1997; 35: 549
  • Meeker J. E., Herrmann P. W., Som S. W., Reynolds P. C. Clozapine Tissue Concentrations Following an Apparent Suicidal Overdose of Clozaril®. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1992; 16: 54–56
  • Springfield A. C., Bodiford E. An Overdose of Risperidone. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1996; 20: 202–203
  • Gardner D. M., Milliken J., Dursun S. M. Olanzapine Overdose (letter). Am. J. Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1118–1119
  • Harmon T. J., Benitez J. G., Krenzelok E. P., Cortes-Belen E. Loss of Consciousness from Acute Quetiapine Overdosage. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1998; 36: 599–602
  • Janssen Pharmaceuticals. Product Information: Risperdal (Risperidone). Physicians' Desk Reference. 54th Edn., Medical Economics Company, Montvale, New Jersey 2000; 1453–1457
  • Schuster P., Gabriel E., Luefferie B., Gabriel E., Kufferle B., Strobl G., Karobath M. Reversal by Physostigmine of Clozapine-Induced Delirium. Clin. Toxicol. 1977; 10: 437–441
  • Ishii A., Mizoguchi K., Kageoka M., Seno H., Kumazawa T., Suzuki O. Nonfatal Suicidal Intoxication by Clozapine. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1997; 35: 195–197
  • Ines S., Mahal A., Hoss J., Gaertner H. J. Intoxication with Clozapine: Plasma Levels Above 9000 ng/mL. Typical Clinical Picture—Diagnostic Confusion (abstract). Neuropsychopharmacol. 1994; 10: 122S
  • Levinson B. Clozapine (Leponex) Overdosage (letter). South Afr. Med. J. 1975; 4: 5
  • Worm K., Kringsholm B., Steentoft A. Clozapine Cases with Fatal, Toxic or Therapeutic Concentrations. Int. J. Leg. Med. 1993; 106: 115–118
  • Bedry R., Deschamps L., Pehourcq F., Moore N., Pillet O., Favarel-Garrigues J. C. Non-fatal Clozapine (Leponex) Intoxication with Toxicokinetic Evaluation. Vet. Human Toxicol. 1999; 41: 20–22
  • Wolf L. R., Otten E. J. A Case Report of Clozapine Overdose (abstract). Vet. Human Toxicol. 1991; 33: 370
  • Broich K., Heinrich S., Marneros A. Acute Clozapine Overdose: Plasma Concentration and Outcome. Pharmacopsychiat. 1998; 31: 149–151
  • Roy D. M., Cutten A. E.C. Clozapine Overdose with Pronounced Neutrophilia: A Case Report (letter). Aust. & N. Zealand J. Psychiatr. 1993; 27: 530–531
  • Welber M. R., Nevins S. Clozapine Overdose: A Case Report. J. Emerg. Med. 1995; 13: 199–202
  • Hagg S., Spigset O., Edwardsson H., Bjork H. Prolonged Sedation and Slowly Decreasing Clozapine Serum Concentrations After an Overdose (letter). J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1999; 19: 282–284
  • Stevens I., Gaertner H. J. Plasma Level Measurement in a Patient with Clozapine Intoxication (letter). J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1996; 16: 86–87
  • Piccini G., Ceroni P., Marchesi C., Maggini C. Acute Clozapine Overdosage (letter). Br J. Psychiatr. 1997; 170: 290
  • Fogel J., Diaz J. E. Olanzapine Overdose (letter). Ann. Emerg. Med. 1998; 32: 275–276
  • Chambers R. A., Caracansi A., Weiss G. Olanzapine Overdose Cause of Acute Extrapyramidal Symptoms (letter). Am. J. Psychiatr. 1998; 155: 1630–1631
  • O'Malley G. F., Seifert S., Heard K., Daly F., Dart R. C. Olanzapine Overdose Mimicking Opioid Intoxication. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1999; 34: 279–281
  • Bonin M. M., Burkhart K. K. Olanzapine Overdose in a 1-Year Old Male. Ped. Emerg. Care 1999; 15: 266–267
  • Cohen L. G., Fatalo A., Thompson B. T., Di Centes Bergeron G., Flood F. G., Poupolo P. R. Olanzapine Overdose with Serum Concentrations. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1999; 34: 275–278
  • Dougherty T. J., Greene T. F., Farrell S. E., Roberts J. R. Adult and Pediatric Olanzapine (Zyprexa®) Overdose (abstract). J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1997; 35: 550
  • Powell G., Nelson L., Hoffman R. Overdose with Olanzapine (Zyprexa®), A New Antipsychotic Agent (abstract). J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1997; 35: 550
  • Nudelman E., Vinuela L. M., Cohen C. I. Safety in Overdose of Quetiapine: A Case Report (letter). J. Clin. Psychiatry 1998; 59: 433
  • Lynch S., Fill S., Hoffman R. S. Intentional Quetiapine (Seroquel) Overdose (abstract). J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1999; 37: 631
  • Lee H. S., Tan C. H., Au L. S.Y., Khoo Y. M. Serum and Urine Risperidone Concentrations in Acute Overdose (letter). J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1997; 17: 325–326
  • Acri A. A., Henretig F. M. Effects of Risperidone in Overdose. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 1998; 16: 498–501
  • Kopala L. C., Day C., Dillman B., Gardner D. A Case of Risperidone Overdose in Early Schizophrenia: A Review of Potential Complications. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 1998; 23: 305–308
  • Kuspis D., Dean B., Krenzelok E. P. Risperidone Overdose Assessment (abstract). J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1995; 33: 552
  • Catalano F., Catalano M. C., Taylor W. Acute Risperidone Overdose. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 1997; 20: 82–85
  • Heather G. S., Vicas I. M.O. Risperidone Overdose: A Case Series (abstract). Vet. Human Toxicol. 1994; 36: 371
  • Himstreet J. E., Daya M. Hypotension and Orthostasis Following a Risperidone Overdose (letter). Ann. Pharmacother. 1998; 32: 267
  • Moore N. C., Shukla P. Risperidone Overdose. Am. J. Psychiatr. 1997; 154: 289–290
  • Lo Vecchio F., Hamilton R. J., Hoffman R. J. Risperidone Overdose (letter). Am. J. Emerg. Med. 1996; 14: 95–96
  • Novartis Pharmaceuticals. Product Information: Clozaril (Clozapine). Physicians' Desk Reference. 54th Edn., Medical Economics Company, Montvale, New Jersey 2000; 2008–2012
  • Eli Lilly Industries. Product Information: Zyprexa (Olanzapine). Physicians' Desk Reference. 54th Edn., Medical Economics Company, Montvale, New Jersey 2000; 1649–1653
  • Zeneca Pharmaceuticals. Product Information: Seroquel (Quetiapine). Physicians' Desk Reference. 54th Edn., Medical Economics Company, Montvale, New Jersey 2000; 562–566
  • Reilly J. G., Ayis S. A., Ferrier I. N., Jones S. J., Thomas S. H. QTc-Interval Abnormalities and Psychotropic Drug Therapy in Psychiatric Patients. Lancet 2000; 355: 1048–1052
  • Renwick A. C., Renwick A. G., Flanagan R. J., Ferner R. E. Monitoring of Clozapine and Norclozapine Plasma Concentration-Time Curves in Acute Overdose. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 2000; 38: 325–328
  • Ravin D. S., Levenson J. W. Fatal Cardiac Event Following Initiation of Risperidone Therapy. Ann. Pharmacother. 1997; 31: 867–870
  • Tamminga C. A. The Promise of New Drugs for Schizophrenia Treatment. Can. J. Psychiatry 1997; 42: 265–273
  • Jibson M. D., Tandon R. A Summary of Research Findings on the New Antipsychotic Drugs. Essent. Psychopharmacol. 1996; 1: 27–37
  • Casey D. The Relationship of Pharmacology to Side Effects. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1997; 58(Suppl 10)55–62
  • Cortese L., Pourcher-Bouchard E., Williams R. Assessment and Management of Antipsychotic-Induced Adverse Events. Can. J. Psychiatry 1998; 43(1)15S–20S
  • Karagianis J. L., Phillips L. C., Hogan K. P., LeDrew K. K. Clozapine-Associated Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome: Two New Cases and a Review of the Literature. Ann. Pharmacother. 1999; 33: 623–630
  • Levin G. M., Lazowick A. L., Powell H. S. Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome with Risperidone. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1996; 16: 192–193
  • Gleason P. P., Conigliaro R. L. Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome with Risperidone. Pharmacotherapy 1997; 17: 617–621
  • Burkhard P. R., Vingerhoets F. L.G. Olanzapine-Induced Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (letter). Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 1999; 56: 101–102
  • Hummer M., Kurz M., Kurzthalaer I., Oberbauer H., Miller C., Fleischhacker W. W. Hepatotoxicity of Clozapine. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1997; 17: 314–317
  • Whitworth A. B., Liensberger D., Fleischhacker W. W. Transient Increase of Liver Enzymes Induced by Risperidone: Two Case Reports (letter). J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1999; 19: 475–476
  • Kellner M., Wiedemann K., Krieg J. C., Berg P. Toxic Hepatitis by Clozapine Treatment. Am. J. Psychol. 1993; 150: 985–986
  • Fuller M. A., Simon M. R., Freedman L. Risperidone-Associated Hepatotoxicity (letter). J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1996; 16: 84–85
  • Alvir J., Lieberman J., Safferman A., Schwimmer J. L., Schaaf J. A. Clozapine-Induced Agranulocytosis: Incidence and Risk Factors in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993; 329: 162–167
  • Safferman A., Lieberman J. A., Kane J. M., Szymanski S., Kinon B. Update on the Clinical Efficacy and Side Effects of Clozapine. Schizophr. Bull. 1991; 17: 247–261
  • Geibig C. B., Marks L. W. Treatment of Clozapine- and Molindone-Induced Agranulocytosis with Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor. Ann. Pharmacotherapy 1993; 27: 1190–1194
  • Anonymous. Clozapine and Myocarditis WHO Drug Information 1994; 8: 212–213
  • Goff D. C., Baldessarini R. J. Drug Interactions with Antipsychotic Agents. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1993; 13: 57–67
  • Edge S. C., Markowitz J. S., DeVane C. L. Clozapine Drug Interactions: A Review of the Literature. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 1997; 12: 5–20
  • Klimke A., Klieser E. Sudden Death After Intra-venous Application of Lorazepam in a Patient Treatedwith Clozapine (letter). Am. J. Psychiatry 1994; 151: 780
  • Tanaka E., Hisawa S. Clinically Significant Pharmacokinetic Drug Interactions with Psychoactive Drugs: Antidepressants and Antipsychotics and the Cytochrome P450 System. J. Clin. Pharm. Therapeutics 1999; 24: 7–16
  • Taylor D. Pharmacokinetic Interactions Involving Clozapine. Br. J. Psychiatry 1997; 171: 109–112
  • Cohen L. G., Chesley S., Eugenio L., Flood J. G., Fisch J., Goff D. C. Erythromycin-Induced Clozapine Toxic Reaction. Arch. Int. Med. 1996; 156: 675–677
  • Funderburg L. G., Vertrees J. E., True J. E., Miller A. L. Seizure Following Addition of Erythromycin to Clozapine Treatment. Am. J. Psychiatr. 1994; 151: 1840–1841
  • Sloan K. L., Haver V. M., Saxon A. J. Quetiapine and False-Positive Urine Drug Testing for Tricyclic Antidepressants (letter). Am. J. Psychiatr. 2000; 157: 148–149
  • Burns M. J., Linden C. H., Graudins A., Brown R. M., Fletcher K. E. A Comparison of Physostigmine and Benzodiazepines for the Treatment of Anticholinergic Poisoning. Ann. Emerg. Med. 2000; 35: 374–381
  • American Academy of Clinical Toxicology, European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. Position Statement: Single-Dose Activated Charcoal. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1997; 35: 721–741

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.