References
- Gerding DN, Olson MM, Peterson LR, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis in adults. A prospective case-controlled epidemiologic study. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:95–100
- Fekety R, Shah AB. Diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. J Am Med Assoc 1993;269:71–5
- Kyne L, Hamel MB, Polavaram R, et al. Health care costs and mortality associated with nosocomial diarrhea due to Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:346–53
- Riley TV, Copper M, Bell B, et al. Community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:S263–S265
- Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, et al. Asymptomatic carriage of Clostridium difficile and serum levels of IgG antibody against toxin A. New Engl J Med 2000;342:390–7
- Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, et al. Association between antibody response to toxin A and protection against recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Lancet 2001;357:189–93
- McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Stamm WE, et al. Correlation of immunoblot type, enterotoxin production, and cytotoxin production with clinical manifestations of Clostridium difficile infection in a cohort of hospitalized patients. Infect Immun 1991;59:2456–62
- Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA, et al. A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. New Engl J Med 2005;353:2442–9
- Ortiz-de-Saracho J, Pantoja L, Romero MJ, et al. Moxifloxacininduced Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Ann Pharmacother 2003;37: 452–3
- McDonald LC, Killgore GE, Thompson A, et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. New Engl J Med 2005;353:2433–41
- Drudy D, Quinn T, O’Mahony R, et al. High-level resistance to moxifloxacin and gatifloxacin associated with a novel mutation in gyrB in toxin-A-negative, toxin-B-positive Clostridium difficile. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;58: 1264–7
- Goorhuis A, Van der Kooi T, Vaessen N, et al. Spread and epidemiology of Clostridium difficile polymerase chain reaction ribotype 027/toxinotype III in the Netherlands. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:695–703
- Akerland T, Svenungsson B, Lagergren A, et al. Correlation of disease severity with fecal toxin levels in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and distribution of PCR ribotypes and toxin yields in vitro of corresponding isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:353–8
- Pechine S, Janoir C, Collignon A. Variability of Clostridium difficile surface proteins and specific serum antibody response in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:5018–25
- Dan M, Samra Z. Clostridium difficile colitis associated with ofloxacin therapy. Am J Med 1989;87:479
- Ciprofloxacin and pseudomembranous colitis. Lancet 1990;336:1509–10
- McFarland LV, Bauwens JE, Melcher SA, et al. Ciprofloxacinassociated Clostridium difficile disease. Lancet 1995;346:977–8
- Zehnder D, Kunzi UP, Maibach R, et al. Frequency of antibiotics-associated colitis in hospitalized patients in 1974–1991 in ‘Comprehensive Hospital Drug Monitoring’, Bern/St. Gallen. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift 1995;125:676–83
- Jones EM, Kirkpatrick BL, Feeney R, et al. Hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Lancet 1997;349:1176–7
- Muto CA, Pokrywka M, Shutt K, et al. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26:273–80
- Pepin J, Saheb N, Coulombe MA, et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:1254–60
- Ozawa TT, Valadez T. Clostridium difficile infection associated with levofloxacin treatment. J Tenn Med Assoc 2002;95: 113–5
- Gaynes R, Rimland D, Killum E, et al. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a long-term care facility: association with gatifloxacin use. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:640–5
- Polk RE, Oinonen M, Pakyz A. Epidemic Clostridium difficile. New Engl J Med 2006;354:1199–203
- McCusker ME, Harris AD, Perencevich E, et al. Fluoroquinolone use and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Emerg Infect Dis 2003;9:730–3
- Gerding DN. Clindamycin, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: this is an antimicrobial resistance problem. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:646–8
- Biller P, Shank B, Lind L, et al. Moxifloxacin therapy as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated disease during an outbreak: attempts to control a new epidemic strain. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:198–201
- Valiquette L, Cossette B, Garant M-P, et al. Impact of a reduction in the use of high-risk antibiotics on the course of an epidemic of Clostridium difficile-associated disease caused by the hypervirulent NAP1/027 strain. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:S112–S121