Developments in antiplatelet therapy for acute coronary syndromes and considerations for long-term management

References

• Rosamond W, Flegal K, Furie K, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2008 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 2008;117:e25–146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antman EM, Braunwald E. Acute myocardial infarction. In: Braunwald E, ed. Braunwald's Heart Disease. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 1997:1184-93
   Google Scholar
• Ruggeri ZM. Platelets in atherothrombosis. Nat Med 2002;8:1127–34
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volturo GA, Mazzola JL, Przylenk K. The role of antiplatelet therapy in the management of acute coronary syndromes. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2005;4:541–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van de Werf F. Dual antiplatelet therapy in high-risk patients. Eur Heart J Suppl 2007;9 (Suppl D):D3–9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson JL, Adams CD, Antman EM, et al. ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/non ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2002 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Unstable Angina/Non ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction). Circulation 2007;116:e148–304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antman E, Hand M, Armstrong P. 2007 Focused update of the ACC/AHA 2004 guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:210–47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serebruany VL, Steinhubl SR, Berger PB, et al. Variability in platelet responsiveness to clopidogrel among 544 individuals. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;45:246–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiviott SD, Antman EM, Winters KJ, et al. Randomized comparison of prasugrel (CS-747, LY640315), a novel thienopyridine P2Y12 antagonist, with clopidogrel in percutaneous coronary intervention: results of the Joint Utilization of Medications to Block Platelets Optimally (JUMBO)-TIMI 26 trial. Circulation 2005;111:3366–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Giezen JJJ. Optimizing platelet inhibition. Eur Heart J Suppl 2008;10 (Suppl D):D23–9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ambrose JA. Plaque disruption and the acute coronary syndromes of unstable angina and myocardial infarction: if the substrate is similar, why is the clinical presentation different? J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;19:1653–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleiman NS, Ohman EM, Califf RM, et al. Profound inhibition of platelet aggregation with monoclonal antibody 7E3 Fab after thrombolytic therapy. Results of the Thrombolysis and Angioplasty in Myocardial Infarction (TAMI) 8 pilot study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;22:381–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moser M, Bertram U, Peter K, et al. Abciximab, eptifibatide, and tirofiban exhibit dose-dependent potencies to dissolve platelet aggregates. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2003;41:586–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrono C. Aspirin as an antiplatelet drug. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1287–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrono C, Coller B, Dalen JE, et al. Platelet-active drugs: the relationships among dose, effectiveness, and side effects. Chest 2001;119:39–63S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White HD. Unmet therapeutic needs in the management of acute ischemia. Am J Cardiol 1997;80:2–10B
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storey RF. The P2Y12 receptor as a therapeutic target in cardiovascular disease. Platelets 2001;12:197–209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollopeter G, Jantzen H-M, Vincent D, et al. Identifcation of the platelet ADP receptor targeted by antithrombotic drugs. Nature 2001;409:202–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cairns JA, Gent M, Singer J, et al. Aspirin, sulfinpyrazone, or both in unstable angina. Results of a Canadian multicenter trial. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1369–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis HD Jr., Davis JW, Archibald DG, et al. Protective effects of aspirin against acute myocardial infarction and death in men with unstable angina. Results of a Veterans Administration Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med 1983;309:396–403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theroux P, Ouimet H, McCans J, et al. Aspirin, heparin, or both to treat acute unstable angina. N Engl J Med 1988;319:1105–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risk of myocardial infarction and death during treatment with low dose aspirin and intravenous heparin in men with unstable coronary artery disease. The RISC Group. Lancet 1990;336:827–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helgason CM, Bolin KM, Hoff JA, et al. Development of aspirin resistance in persons with previous ischemic stroke. Stroke 1994;25:2331–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helgason CM, Hoff JA, Kondos GT, et al. Platelet aggregation in patients with atrial fibrillation taking aspirin or warfarin. Stroke 1993;24:1458–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helgason CM, Tortorice KL, Winkler SR, et al. Aspirin response and failure in cerebral infarction. Stroke 1993;24:345–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Peters RJ, et al. Effects of pretreatment with clopidogrel and aspirin followed by long-term therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the PCI-CURE study. Lancet 2001;358:527–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinhubl SR, Berger PB, Mann JT 3rd, et al. Early and sustained dual oral antiplatelet therapy following percutaneous coronary intervention: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002;288:2411–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yusuf S, Zhao F, Mehta SR, et al. Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med 2001;345:494–502
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz KA, Schwartz DE, Ghosheh K, et al. Compliance as a critical consideration in patients who appear to be resistant to aspirin after healing of myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 2005;95:973–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Hiatt BL, et al. Clopidogrel for coronary stenting: response variability, drug resistance, and the effect of pretreatment platelet reactivity. Circulation 2003;107:2908–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badimon L, Vilahur G. Coronary atherothrombotic disease: progress in antiplatelet therapy. Rev Esp Cardiol 2008;61:501–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger JS, Roncaglioni MC, Avanzini F, et al. Aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events in women and men: a sex-specific meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 2006;295:306–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lubbe DF, Berger PB. The thienopyridines. J Interv Cardiol 2002;15:85–93
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hankey GJ, Sudlow CLM, Dunbabin DW. Thienopyridines or aspirin to prevent stroke and other serious vascular events in patients at high risk of vascular disease? A systematic review of the evidence from randomized trials. Stroke 2000;31:1779–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbert JM, Frehel D, Vallee E, et al. Clopidogrel, a novel antiplatelet and antithrombotic agent. Cardiovascular Drug Reviews 1993;11:180–98
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke TA, Waskell LA. The metabolism of clopidogrel is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 3A and is inhibited by atorvastatin. Drug Metab Dispos 2003;31:53–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savcic M, Hauert J, Bachmann F, et al. Clopidogrel loading dose regimens: kinetic profile of pharmacodynamic response in healthy subjects. Semin Thromb Hemost 1999;25(Suppl 2):15–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montalescot G, Sideris G, Meuleman C, et al. A randomized comparison of high clopidogrel loading doses in patients with non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: the ALBION (Assessment of the Best Loading Dose of Clopidogrel to Blunt Platelet Activation, Inflammation and Ongoing Necrosis) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;48:931–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE Steering Committee. Lancet 1996;348:1329–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett CL, Kim B, Zakarija A, et al. Two mechanistic pathways for thienopyridine-associated thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: a report from the SERF-TTP Research Group and the RADAR Project. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50:1138–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinler SA, Wilensky RL. Duration of clopidogrel therapy after placement of drug-eluting intracoronary stent. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2007;64:1–3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhatt DL, Topol EJ. Clopidogrel added to aspirin versus aspirin alone in secondary prevention and high-risk primary prevention: rationale and design of the Clopidogrel for High Atherothrombotic Risk and Ischemic Stabilization, Management, and Avoidance (CHARISMA) trial. Am Heart J 2004;148:263–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith SC Jr., Feldman TE, Hirshfeld JW Jr., et al. ACC/AHA/SCAI 2005 Guideline Update for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention—Summary Article: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (ACC/AHA/SCAI Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention). Circulation 2006;113:e166–e286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbons RJ, Abrams J, Chatterjee K, et al. ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for the management of patients with chronic stable angina--summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines (Committee on the Management of Patients With Chronic Stable Angina). J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:159–69
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lau WC, Gurbel PA, Watkins PB, et al. Contribution of hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 metabolic activity to the phenomenon of clopidogrel resistance. Circulation 2004;109:166–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller MR, Salat A, Stangl P, et al. Variable platelet response to low-dose ASA and the risk of limb deterioration in patients submitted to peripheral arterial angioplasty. Thromb Haemost 1997;78:1003–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barragan P, Bouvier J, Roquebert P, et al. Resistance to thienopyridines: clinical detection of coronary stent thrombosis by monitoring of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein phosphorylation. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2003;59:295–302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Hayes K, et al. The relation of dosing to clopidogrel responsiveness and the incidence of high post-treatment platelet aggregation in patients undergoing coronary stenting. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;45:1392–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajzenberg N, Aubry P, Huisse M, et al. Enhanced shear-induced platelet aggregation in patients who experience subacute stent thrombosis: a case-control study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;45:1753–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buonamici P, Marcucci R, Migliorini A, et al. Impact of platelet reactivity after clopidogrel administration on drug-eluting stent thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:2312–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buch A, Singh S, Roy P, et al. Measuring Aspirin Resistance, Clopidogrel Responsiveness, and Postprocedural Markers of Myonecrosis in Patients Undergoing Percutaneous Coronary Intervention. Am J Cardiol 2007;99:1518–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matetzky S, Shenkman B, Guetta V, et al. Clopidogrel resistance is associated with increased risk of recurrent atherothrombotic events in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 2004;109:3171–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price MJ, Valencia R, Gollapudi RR, et al. The response to clopidogrel measured by a point-of-care assay following percutaneous coronary intervention is associated with stent thrombosis over 6-month follow-up. Presented at the American College of Cardiology Innovation in Intervention: i2 Summit 2007 Abstract Sessions, Abstract 906-216. 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Hongo RH, Ley J, Dick SE, et al. The effect of clopidogrel in combination with aspirin when given before coronary artery bypass grafting. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:231–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song SW, Youn YN, Yi G, et al. Effects of continuous administration of clopidogrel before off-pump coronary artery bypass grafting in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Circ J 2008;72:626–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yende S, Wunderink RG. Effect of clopidogrel on bleeding after coronary artery bypass surgery. Crit Care Med 2001;29:2271–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltais S, Perrault LP, Do QB. Effect of clopidogrel on bleeding and transfusions after off-pump coronary artery bypass graft surgery: impact of discontinuation prior to surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2008;34:127–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugidachi A, Asai F, Ogawa T, et al. The in vivo pharmacological profile of CS-747, a novel antiplatelet agent with platelet ADP receptor antagonist properties. Br J Pharmacol 2000;129:1439–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Giezen JJ, Humphries RG. Preclinical and clinical studies with selective reversible direct P2Y12 antagonists. Semin Thromb Hemost 2005;31:195–204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nurden AT, Nurden P. Advantages of fast-acting ADP receptor blockade in ischemic heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:158–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugidachi A, Ogawa T, Kurihara A, et al. The greater in vivo antiplatelet effects of prasugrel as compared to clopidogrel reflect more efficient generation of its active metabolite with similar antiplatelet activity to that of clopidogrel's active metabolite. J Thromb Haemost 2007;5:1545–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakubowski JA, Payne CD, Brandt JT, et al. The platelet inhibitory effects and pharmacokinetics of prasugrel after administration of loading and maintenance doses in healthy subjects. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2006;47:377–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt JT, Payne CD, Wiviott SD, et al. A comparison of prasugrel and clopidogrel loading doses on platelet function: magnitude of platelet inhibition is related to active metabolite formation. Am Heart J 2007;153:66–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asai F, Jakubowski JA, Naganuma H, et al. Platelet inhibitory activity and pharmacokinetics of prasugrel (CS-747) a novel thienopyridine P2Y12 inhibitor: a single ascending dose study in healthy humans. Platelets 2006;17:209–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Zaman KA, et al. Clopidogrel loading with eptifibatide to arrest the reactivity of platelets: results of the Clopidogrel Loading With Eptifibatide to Arrest the Reactivity of Platelets (CLEAR PLATELETS) study. Circulation 2005;111:1153–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kastrati A, von Beckerath N, Joost A, et al. Loading with 600 mg clopidogrel in patients with coronary artery disease with and without chronic clopidogrel therapy. Circulation 2004;110:1916–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller I, Seyfarth M, Rüdiger S, et al. Effect of a high loading dose of clopidogrel on platelet function in patients undergoing coronary stent placement. Heart 2001;85:92–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jernberg T, Payne CD, Winters KJ, et al. Prasugrel achieves greater inhibition of platelet aggregation and a lower rate of non-responders compared with clopidogrel in aspirin-treated patients with stable coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 2006;27:1166–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2007;357:2001–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiviott SD, Trenk D, Frelinger AL, et al. Prasugrel compared with high loading- and maintenance-dose clopidogrel in patients with planned percutaneous coronary intervention: the Prasugrel in Comparison to Clopidogrel for Inhibition of Platelet Activation and Aggregation-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 44 trial. Circulation 2007;116:2923–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antman EM, Wiviott SD, Murphy SA, et al. Early and late benefits of prasugrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: a TRITON-TIMI 38 (TRial to Assess Improvement in Therapeutic Outcomes by Optimizing Platelet InhibitioN with Prasugrel-Thrombolysis In Myocardial Infarction) analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:2028–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Husted S, Emanuelsson H, Heptinstall S, et al. Pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and safety of the oral reversible P2Y12 antagonist AZD6140 with aspirin in patients with atherosclerosis: a double-blind comparison to clopidogrel with aspirin. Eur Heart J 2006;27:1038–47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannon CP, Husted S, Harrington RA, et al. Safety, tolerability, and initial efficacy of AZD6140, the first reversible oral adenosine diphosphate receptor antagonist, compared with clopidogrel, in patients with non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndrome: primary results of the DISPERSE-2 trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50:1844–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storey RF, Husted S, Harrington RA, et al. Inhibition of platelet aggregation by AZD6140, a reversible oral P2Y12 receptor antagonist, compared with clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50:1852–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• A comparison of AZD6140 and clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndrome (PLATO). http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00391872?term=plato&rank=1. Accessed July 29, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Greenbaum AB, Grines CL, Bittl JA, et al. Initial experience with an intravenous P2Y12 platelet receptor antagonist in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: results from a 2-part, phase II, multicenter, randomized, placebo- and active-controlled trial. Am Heart J 2006;151:689–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storey RF, Sanderson HM, White AE, et al. The central role of the P(2T) receptor in amplification of human platelet activation, aggregation, secretion and procoagulant activity. Br J Haematol 2000;110:925–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storey RF, Wilcox RG, Heptinstall S. Comparison of the pharmacodynamic effects of the platelet ADP receptor antagonists clopidogrel and AR-C69931MX in patients with ischaemic heart disease. Platelets 2002;13:407–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schering-Plough Announces Initiation of Two Phase III Clinical Trials for Novel Selective Antiplatelet Therapy (TRA-SCH 530348). http://www.schering-plough.com/schering_plough/news/release.jsp?releaseID=987054. Accessed July 10, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• SCH 530348 (TRA), a Novel Investigational Antiplatelet Agent, Shown to Inhibit Platelet Aggregation in PCI Patients. http://www.schering-plough.com/schering_plough/news/release.jsp?releaseID=1074078. Accessed July 10, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Jennings LK, Earhart A, Becker RC, et al.Thrombin Receptor Antagonist (TRA;SCH530348) is a Selective, Potent Inhibitor of PAR1 Activity with Predictable Pharmacokinetics. Circulation 2007;116: II_674. Abstract 1030.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar