Management of patients with type 2 diabetes

References

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National diabetes fact sheet: general information and national estimates on diabetes in the United States, 2007. 2008 Available at: www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2007.pdf [Last accessed 24 August 2010]
   Google Scholar
• State-specific incidence of diabetes among adults – participating states, 1995–1997 and 2005–2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2008;57:1169-73
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez EL, Johansson S, Wallander MA, et al. Trends in the prevalence and incidence of diabetes in the UK: 1996–2005. J Epidemiol Community Health 2009;63:332-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, et al. Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes care 2004;27:1047-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narayan KM, Boyle JP, Geiss LS, et al. Impact of recent increase in incidence on future diabetes burden: U.S., 2005–2050. Diabetes Care 2006;29:2114-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2007. Diabetes Care 2008;31:596-615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Economic consequences of diabetes mellitus in the U.S. in 1997. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 1998;21:296-309
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huang ES, Basu A, O'Grady M, et al. Projecting the future diabetes population size and related costs for the U.S. Diabetes Care 2009;32:2225-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. Diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care 2002;25(Suppl 1):S85-9
   Google Scholar
• Saaddine JB, Honeycutt AA, Narayan KM, et al. Projection of diabetic retinopathy and other major eye diseases among people with diabetes mellitus: United States, 2005–2050. Arch Ophthalmol 2008;126:1740-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. United States Renal Data System, USRDS 2009 annual data report: atlas of chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease in the United States. 2009 Available at: http://www.usrds.org/atlas_2009.htm [Last accessed 24 August 2010]
   Google Scholar
• Laliberte F, Bookhart BK, Vekeman F, et al. Direct all-cause health care costs associated with chronic kidney disease in patients with diabetes and hypertension: a managed care perspective. J Manag Care Pharm 2009;15:312-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuel VT, Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Lipid-induced insulin resistance: unravelling the mechanism. Lancet 2011;375:2267-77
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UKPDS Study Group authors. U.K. prospective diabetes study 16. Overview of 6 years' therapy of type II diabetes: a progressive disease. U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Diabetes 1995;44:1249-58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews DR, Cull CA, Stratton IM, et al. UKPDS 26: Sulphonylurea failure in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients over six years. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Diabet Med 1998;15:297-303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler AE, Janson J, Bonner-Weir S, et al. Beta-cell deficit and increased beta-cell apoptosis in humans with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2003;52:102-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defronzo RA. Banting Lecture. From the triumvirate to the ominous octet: a new paradigm for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 2009;58:773-95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitabchi AE, Temprosa M, Knowler WC, et al. Role of insulin secretion and sensitivity in the evolution of type 2 diabetes in the diabetes prevention program: effects of lifestyle intervention and metformin. Diabetes 2005;54:2404-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan TA, Xiang AH, Peters RK, et al. Preservation of pancreatic beta-cell function and prevention of type 2 diabetes by pharmacological treatment of insulin resistance in high-risk Hispanic women. Diabetes 2002;51:2796-803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marchetti P, Lupi R, Del Guerra S, et al. Goals of treatment for type 2 diabetes: beta-cell preservation for glycemic control. Diabetes Care 2009;32(Suppl 2):S178-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wajchenberg BL. Beta-cell failure in diabetes and preservation by clinical treatment. Endocr Rev 2007;28:187-218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keymeulen B. New therapies aimed at the preservation or restoration of beta cell function in type 1 diabetes. Acta Clin Belg 2006;61:275-85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiter LA. Beta-cell preservation: a potential role for thiazolidinediones to improve clinical care in Type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med 2005;22:963-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff JL, Starfield B, Anderson G. Prevalence, expenditures, and complications of multiple chronic conditions in the elderly. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:2269-76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suh DC, Kim CM, Choi IS, et al. Comorbid conditions and glycemic control in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, 1988 to 1994 to 1999 to 2004. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008;56:484-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrish NJ, Wang SL, Stevens LK, et al. Mortality and causes of death in the WHO Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes. Diabetologia 2001;44(Suppl 2):S14-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saydah SH, Eberhardt MS, Loria CM, et al. Age and the burden of death attributable to diabetes in the United States. Am J Epidemiol 2002;156:714-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goraya TY, Leibson CL, Palumbo PJ, et al. Coronary atherosclerosis in diabetes mellitus: a population-based autopsy study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:946-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg JP, Bakris GL. Microalbuminuria: marker of vascular dysfunction, risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Vasc Med 2002;7:35-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarafidis PA, Bakris GL. Microalbuminuria and chronic kidney disease as risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006;21:2366-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klausen K, Borch-Johnsen K, Feldt-Rasmussen B, et al. Very low levels of microalbuminuria are associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease and death independently of renal function, hypertension, and diabetes. Circulation 2004;110:32-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wachtell K, Ibsen H, Olsen MH, et al. Albuminuria and cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy: the LIFE study. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:901-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann JF, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, et al. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and the impact of ramipril: the HOPE randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:629-36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemmingsen B, Lund SS, Gluud C, et al. Targeting intensive glycaemic control versus targeting conventional glycaemic control for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;6:CD008143
   Google Scholar
• Molyneaux LM, Constantino MI, McGill M, et al. Better glycaemic control and risk reduction of diabetic complications in Type 2 diabetes: comparison with the DCCT. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1998;42:77-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ 2000;321:405-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med 2008;358:2560-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med 2009;360:129-39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med 2008;358:2545-59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bode BW. Defining the importance of daily glycemic control and implications for type 2 diabetes management. Postgrad Med 2009;121:82-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, et al. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med 2008;359:1577-89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standards of medical care in diabetes – 2011. Diabetes Care 2011;34:S11-61
   Google Scholar
• Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002;106:3143-421
   Google Scholar
• Rodbard HW, Jellinger PS, Davidson JA, et al. Statement by an American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists/American College of Endocrinology consensus panel on type 2 diabetes mellitus: an algorithm for glycemic control. Endocr Pract 2009;15:540-59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:461-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, et al. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 2009;150:604-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Accetta NA, Gladstone EH, DiSogra C, et al. Prevalence of estimated GFR reporting among US clinical laboratories. Am J Kidney Dis 2008;52:778-87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushman WC, Evans GW, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. New Engl J Med;362:1575-85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crouch MA. The goal blood pressure in type 2 diabetes: do we have an ACCORD? Consult Pharm;25:686,8
   Google Scholar
• Mancia G. Effects of intensive blood pressure control in the management of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) trial. Circulation 2010;122:847-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weir MR, Bakris GL. Optimal blood pressure for a patient with type 2 diabetes mellitus: insight from the ACCORD study. Curr Hypertens Rep 2010;12:313-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glandt M, Raz I. Pharmacotherapy: ACCORD Blood Pressure and ACCORD Lipid: how low can we go? Nature Rev 2010;6:483-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloch MJ, Basile JN. Is there accord in ACCORD? Lower blood pressure targets in type 2 diabetes does not lead to fewer cardiovascular events except for reductions in stroke. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich, Conn) 2010;12:472-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giles TD, Houston MC. Do diuretics diminish the predicted benefits on ischemic heart disease events of lowering blood pressure in hypertension? Messages from ALLHAT, ACCOMPLISH, and ACCORD. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich, Conn) 2010;12:469-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil HA, et al. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. BMJ 2000;321:412-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ 1998;317:703-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al. Effects of a fixed combination of perindopril and indapamide on macrovascular and microvascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the ADVANCE trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007;370:829-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, et al. Medical management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation and adjustment of therapy: a consensus statement of the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32:193-203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasserson DS, Glasziou P, Perera R, et al. Optimal insulin regimens in type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analyses. Diabetologia 2009;52:1990-2000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holman RR, Farmer AJ, Davies MJ, et al. Three-year efficacy of complex insulin regimens in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med 2009;361:1736-47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens DR, Bolli GB. Beyond the era of NPH insulin – long-acting insulin analogs: chemistry, comparative pharmacology, and clinical application. Diabetes Tech Therapeut 2008;10:333-49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schernthaner G, Barnett AH, Betteridge DJ, et al. Is the ADA/EASD algorithm for the management of type 2 diabetes (January 2009) based on evidence or opinion? A critical analysis. Diabetologia 2010;53:1258-69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IDF Clinical Guidelines Task Force. Global guideline for type 2 diabetes. 2005. Available at: http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/IDF%20GGT2D.pdf [Last accessed 23 August 2010]
   Google Scholar
• Kim YD, Park KG, Lee YS, et al. Metformin inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis through AMP-activated protein kinase-dependent regulation of the orphan nuclear receptor SHP. Diabetes 2008;57:306-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeFronzo RA, Goodman AM. Efficacy of metformin in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Multicenter Metformin Study Group. New Engl J Med 1995;333:541-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buse JB, Tan MH, Prince MJ, et al. The effects of oral anti-hyperglycaemic medications on serum lipid profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2004;6:133-56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans JM, Ogston SA, Emslie-Smith A, et al. Risk of mortality and adverse cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: a comparison of patients treated with sulfonylureas and metformin. Diabetologia 2006;49:930-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet 1998;352:854-65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson JA, Majumdar SR, Simpson SH, et al. Decreased mortality associated with the use of metformin compared with sulfonylurea monotherapy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2002;25:2244-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tzoulaki I, Molokhia M, Curcin V, et al. Risk of cardiovascular disease and all cause mortality among patients with type 2 diabetes prescribed oral antidiabetes drugs: retrospective cohort study using UK general practice research database. BMJ 2009;339:b4731
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw JS, Wilmot RL, Kilpatrick ES. Establishing pragmatic estimated GFR thresholds to guide metformin prescribing. Diabet Med 2007;24:1160-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormack J, Johns K, Tildesley H. Metformin's contraindications should be contraindicated. CMAJ 2005;173:502-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fantus IG. Metformin's contraindications: needed for now. CMAJ 2005;173:505-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisman EZ, Motro M, Tenenbaum A. Non-insulin antidiabetic therapy in cardiac patients: current problems and future prospects. Adv Cardiol 2008;45:154-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Prato S, Pulizzi N. The place of sulfonylureas in the therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism 2006;55(5 Suppl 1):S20-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qian L, Zhang S, Xu L, et al. Endoplasmic reticulum stress in beta cells: latent mechanism of secondary sulfonylurea failure in type 2 diabetes? Med Hypotheses 2008;71:889-91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazzone T, Meyer PM, Feinstein SB, et al. Effect of pioglitazone compared with glimepiride on carotid intima-media thickness in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. JAMA 2006;296:2572-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charbonnel B, Schernthaner G, Brunetti P, et al. Long-term efficacy and tolerability of add-on pioglitazone therapy to failing monotherapy compared with addition of gliclazide or metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2005;48:1093-104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn SE, Haffner SM, Heise MA, et al. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy. New Engl J Med 2006;355:2427-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson J, Lindberg G, Gottsater M, et al. Increased mortality in type II diabetic patients using sulphonylurea and metformin in combination: a population-based observational study. Diabetologia 2000;43:558-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisman EZ, Tenenbaum A, Boyko V, et al. Oral antidiabetic treatment in patients with coronary disease: time-related increased mortality on combined glyburide/metformin therapy over a 7.7-year follow-up. Clin Cardiol 2001;24:151-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao AD, Kuhadiya N, Reynolds K, et al. Is the combination of sulfonylureas and metformin associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease or all-cause mortality? A meta-analysis of observational studies. Diabetes Care 2008;31:1672-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet 1998;352:837-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell RK. Fate of the beta-cell in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. J Am Pharm Assoc (2003) 2009;49(Suppl 1):S10-15
   Google Scholar
• Rosenstock J, Goldstein BJ, Vinik AI, et al. Effect of early addition of rosiglitazone to sulphonylurea therapy in older type 2 diabetes patients (>60 years): the Rosiglitazone Early vs. SULphonylurea Titration (RESULT) study. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2006;8:49-57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baksi A, James RE, Zhou B, et al. Comparison of uptitration of gliclazide with the addition of rosiglitazone to gliclazide in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on half-maximal doses of a sulphonylurea. Acta Diabetologica 2004;41:63-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanefeld M, Brunetti P, Schernthaner GH, et al. One-year glycemic control with a sulfonylurea plus pioglitazone versus a sulfonylurea plus metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27:141-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann JM, Moore LB, Smith-Oliver TA, et al. An antidiabetic thiazolidinedione is a high affinity ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma). J Biol Chem 1995;270:12953-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukherjee R, Davies PJ, Crombie DL, et al. Sensitization of diabetic and obese mice to insulin by retinoid X receptor agonists. Nature 1997;386:407-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sears DD, Hsiao G, Hsiao A, et al. Mechanisms of human insulin resistance and thiazolidinedione-mediated insulin sensitization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:18745-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schernthaner G, Matthews DR, Charbonnel B, et al. Efficacy and safety of pioglitazone versus metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a double-blind, randomized trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 2004;89:6068-76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charbonnel BH, Matthews DR, Schernthaner G, et al. A long-term comparison of pioglitazone and gliclazide in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group comparison trial. Diabet Med 2005;22:399-405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg RB, Kendall DM, Deeg MA, et al. A comparison of lipid and glycemic effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care 2005;28:1547-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond GA, Bax L, Kaul S. Uncertain effects of rosiglitazone on the risk for myocardial infarction and cardiovascular death. Ann Intern Med 2007;147:578-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. New Engl J Med 2007;356:2457-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh S, Loke YK, Furberg CD. Long-term risk of cardiovascular events with rosiglitazone: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2007;298:1189-95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FDA significantly restricts access to the diabetes drug Avandia: makes regulatory decisions on RECORD and TIDE trials. [FDA News Release] 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm226975.htm [Last accessed 29 September 2010]
   Google Scholar
• Nayak UA, Govindan J, Baskar V, et al. Exenatide therapy in insulin-treated type 2 diabetes and obesity. QJM;103:687-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buse JB, Bergenstal RM, Glass LC, et al. Use of twice-daily exenatide in basal insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2011;154:103-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin PA, Mersey JH, Zhou S, et al. Clinical outcomes using long-term combination therapy with insulin glargine and exenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes. Endocr Pract 2011;8:1-28
   Google Scholar
• FDA Drug Safety Communication: update to ongoing safety review of Actos (pioglitazone) and increased risk of bladder cancer. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm259150.htm [Last accessed April 17, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Fakhoury WK, Lereun C, Wright D. A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled clinical trials assessing the efficacy and safety of incretin-based medications in patients with type 2 diabetes. Pharmacology 2010;86:44-57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monami M, Marchionni N, Mannucci E. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Eur J Endocrinology/European Federation of Endocrine Societies 2009;160:909-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amori RE, Lau J, Pittas AG. Efficacy and safety of incretin therapy in type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2007;298:194-206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane W, Weinrib S, Rappaport J. The effect of liraglutide added to U-500 insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes and high insulin requirements. Diabetes Tech Therapeut;13:592-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thong KY, Jose B, Sukumar N, et al. Safety, efficacy and tolerability of exenatide in combination with insulin in the Association of British Clinical Diabetologists nationwide exenatide audit(*). Diabetes Obes Metabol;13:703-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnolds S, Dellweg S, Clair J, et al. Further improvement in postprandial glucose control with addition of exenatide or sitagliptin to combination therapy with insulin glargine and metformin: a proof-of-concept study. Diabetes Care 2010;33:1509-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon NM, Cavaghan MK, Brunelle RL, et al. Exenatide added to insulin therapy: a retrospective review of clinical practice over two years in an academic endocrinology outpatient setting. Clin Therapeut 2009;31:1511-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheffield CA, Kane MP, Busch RS, et al. Safety and efficacy of exenatide in combination with insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract 2008;14:285-92
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Viswanathan P, Chaudhuri A, Bhatia R, et al. Exenatide therapy in obese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with insulin. Endocr Pract 2007;13:444-50
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anagnostis P, Athyros VG, Adamidou F, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1-based therapies and cardiovascular disease: looking beyond glycaemic control. Diabetes Obes Metabol;13:302-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chilton R, Wyatt J, Nandish S, et al. Cardiovascular comorbidities of type 2 diabetes mellitus: defining the potential of glucagonlike peptide-1-based therapies. Am J Med;124(1 Suppl):S35-53
   Google Scholar
• Papazafiropoulou A, Pappas SI, Papadogiannis D, et al. Cardiovascular effects of glucagon-like peptide 1. Mini reviews in medicinal chemistry 2011;11:97-105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okerson T, Yan P, Stonehouse A, et al. Effects of exenatide on systolic blood pressure in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Am J Hypertens 2010;23:334-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Addison D, Aguilar D. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: the potential benefit of incretin-based therapies. Curr Atherosclerosis Rep was online, now 2011 Apr; 13(2):115-22
   Google Scholar
• Okerson T, Chilton RJ. The cardiovascular effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists. Cardiovasc Therapeut Article first published online, 2010 Dec 19
   Google Scholar
• Nauck M, Frid A, Hermansen K, et al. Efficacy and safety comparison of liraglutide, glimepiride, and placebo, all in combination with metformin, in type 2 diabetes: the LEAD (liraglutide effect and action in diabetes)-2 study. Diabetes Care 2009;32:84-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Exenatide Study of Cardiovascular Event Lowering Trial (EXSCEL): a trial to evaluate cardiovascular outcomes after treatment with exenatide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: NCT01144338
   Google Scholar
• Liraglutide effect and action in diabetes: evaluation of cardiovascular outcome results - a long term evaluation: NCT01179048
   Google Scholar
• Study looking at cardiovascular effects of exenatide, its blood pressure lowering effect and its mechanisms: NCT01046721
   Google Scholar
• Impact of exenatide on cardiovascular exercise performance in type 2 diabetes: NCT01364584
   Google Scholar
• Effects of exenatide in type 2 diabetic patients with congestive heart failure: NCT00766857
   Google Scholar
• Effect of additional treatment with EXenatide in patients with an Acute Myocardial Infarction (the EXAMI Trial): NCT01254123
   Google Scholar
• Evaluating the use of exenatide in people with type 2 diabetes and diastolic heart Failure: NCT00799435
   Google Scholar
• GLP-1 agonist exenatide for improved glucose control and cardiac function in diabetic patients with aortocoronary bypass: NCT01373216
   Google Scholar
• The study of exenatide action on vessel function in type 2 diabetes and prediabetes: NCT01181986
   Google Scholar
• Impact of liraglutide on endothelial function and microvascular blood flow in type 2 diabetes mellitus: NCT01208012
   Google Scholar
• Raz I, Hanefeld M, Xu L, et al. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin as monotherapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 2006;49:2564-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aschner P, Kipnes MS, Lunceford JK, et al. Effect of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin as monotherapy on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006;29:2632-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott R, Wu M, Sanchez M, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin as monotherapy over 12 weeks in patients with type 2 diabetes. Int J Clin Pract 2007;61:171-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richter B, Bandeira-Echtler E, Bergerhoff K, et al. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008(2):CD006739
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charbonnel B, Karasik A, Liu J, et al. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin added to ongoing metformin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin alone. Diabetes Care 2006;29:2638-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermansen K, Kipnes M, Luo E, et al. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor, sitagliptin, in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus inadequately controlled on glimepiride alone or on glimepiride and metformin. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2007;9:733-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Prato S, Barnett AH, Huisman H, et al. Effect of linagliptin monotherapy on glycaemic control and markers of beta-cell function in patients with inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2011;13:258-67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taskinen MR, Rosenstock J, Tamminen I, et al. Safety and efficacy of linagliptin as add-on therapy to metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2011;13:65-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens DR, Swallow R, Dugi KA, et al. Efficacy and safety of linagliptin in persons with Type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled by a combination of metformin and sulphonylurea: a 24-week randomized study (1). Diabet Med Jul 22, 2011 Epub ahead of print, doi 10.1111/j.1464-5491
   Google Scholar
• DeFronzo RA, Hissa MN, Garber AJ, et al. The efficacy and safety of saxagliptin when added to metformin therapy in patients with inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes with metformin alone. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1649-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chacra AR, Tan GH, Apanovitch A, et al. Saxagliptin added to a submaximal dose of sulphonylurea improves glycaemic control compared with uptitration of sulphonylurea in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised controlled trial. International J Clin Pract 2009;63:1395-406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollander P, Li J, Allen E, et al. Saxagliptin added to a thiazolidinedione improves glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes and inadequate control on thiazolidinedione alone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:4810-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxagliptin (Onglyza) prescribing information (2010). [Drugs@FDA.] Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/drugsatfda/index.cfm [Last accessed 29 September 2010]
   Google Scholar
• Sitagliptin (Januvia) prescribing information (2010). [Drugs@FDA.] Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/drugsatfda/index.cfm [Last accessed 29 September 2010]
   Google Scholar
• Linagliptin (Tradjenta) prescribing information (2011). Available at: http://www.tradjenta.com/TRADJENTA_(TM)_(linagliptin)_tablets_Prescribing_Information_including_Patient_Information.pdf [Last accessed May 15, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Ahren B. Clinical results of treating type 2 diabetic patients with sitagliptin, vildagliptin or saxagliptin – diabetes control and potential adverse events. Best Pract Res 2009;23:487-98
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumiller JJ, Wood L, Campbell RK. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmacotherapy 2010;30:463-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deacon CF, Holst JJ. Linagliptin, a xanthine-based dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor with an unusual profile for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Exp Opin Investig Drugs 2010;19:133-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stulc T, Sedo A. Inhibition of multifunctional dipeptidyl peptidase-IV: is there a risk of oncological and immunological adverse effects? Diabetes Research Clin Pract 2010;88:125-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Does saxagliptin reduce the risk of cardiovascular events when used alone or added to other diabetes medications: NCT01107886
   Google Scholar
• CAROLINA: Cardiovascular Outcome Study of Linagliptin Versus Glimepiride in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: NCT01243424
   Google Scholar
• Sitagliptin cardiovascular outcome study (0431-082 AM1): NCT00790205
   Google Scholar
• Effects of saxagliptin on endothelial function: NCT01319357
   Google Scholar
• Sitagliptin and kinetics of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins apolipoprotein B48 and B100 in patients with type 2 diabetes: NCT01334229
   Google Scholar
• Effect of sitagliptin on postprandial lipoprotein metabolism: NCT00939939
   Google Scholar
• Comparison of risk of major cardiovascular events between patients with type 2 diabetes exposed to saxagliptin and those exposed to other oral antidiabetic treatments: NCT01086280
   Google Scholar
• Van de Laar FA, Lucassen PL, Akkermans RP, et al. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005(2):CD003639
   Google Scholar
• Acarbose (Precose) prescribing information (2008). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/020482s023lbl.pdf [Last accessed April 17, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Miglitol (Glyset) prescribing information (2008). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/020682s008lbl.pdf [Last accessed April 17, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: the STOP-NIDDM randomised trial. Lancet 2002;359:2072-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: the STOP-NIDDM trial. JAMA 2003;290:486-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. Acarbose for the prevention of Type 2 diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance: facts and interpretations concerning the critical analysis of the STOP-NIDDM Trial data. Diabetologia 2004;47:969-75; discussion 76-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kato T, Inoue T, Node K. Postprandial endothelial dysfunction in subjects with new-onset type 2 diabetes: an acarbose and nateglinide comparative study. Cardiovasc Diabetology 2010;9:12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oyama T, Saiki A, Endoh K, et al. Effect of acarbose, an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, on serum lipoprotein lipase mass levels and common carotid artery intima-media thickness in type 2 diabetes mellitus treated by sulfonylurea. J Atherosclerosis Thromb 2008;15:154-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koyasu M, Ishii H, Watarai M, et al. Impact of acarbose on carotid intima-media thickness in patients with newly diagnosed impaired glucose tolerance or mild type 2 diabetes mellitus: a one-year, prospective, randomized, open-label, parallel-group study in Japanese adults with established coronary artery disease. Clin Therapeut;32:1610-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bromocriptine mesylate (Parlodel) prescribing information (2003). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2005/017962s063,064lbl.pdf [Last accessed April 17, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Bromocryptine mesylate (Cycloset) prescribing information (2009). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/020866lbl.pdf [Last accessed April 17, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Kerr JL, Timpe EM, Petkewicz KA. Bromocriptine mesylate for glycemic management in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Pharmacother 44:1777-85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaziano JM, Cincotta AH, O'Connor CM, et al. Randomized clinical trial of quick-release bromocriptine among patients with type 2 diabetes on overall safety and cardiovascular outcomes. Diabetes Care 2010;33:1503-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staels B, Handelsman Y, Fonseca V. Bile acid sequestrants for lipid and glucose control. Curr Diabetes Rep;10:70-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bays HE, Goldberg RB, Truitt KE, et al. Colesevelam hydrochloride therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with metformin: glucose and lipid effects. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:1975-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonseca VA, Rosenstock J, Wang AC, et al. Colesevelam HCl improves glycemic control and reduces LDL cholesterol in patients with inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes on sulfonylurea-based therapy. Diabetes Care 2008;31:1479-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg RB, Fonseca VA, Truitt KE, et al. Efficacy and safety of colesevelam in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and inadequate glycemic control receiving insulin-based therapy. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:1531-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knapp HH, Schrott H, Ma P, et al. Efficacy and safety of combination simvastatin and colesevelam in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. Am J Med 2001;110:352-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddle MC, Rosenstock J, Gerich J. The treat-to-target trial: randomized addition of glargine or human NPH insulin to oral therapy of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2003;26:3080-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepore G, Dodesini AR, Nosari I, et al. Effect of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion vs multiple daily insulin injection with glargine as basal insulin: an open parallel long-term study. Diabetes Nutr Metabol 2004;17:84-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garg SK, Walker AJ, Hoff HK, et al. Glycemic parameters with multiple daily injections using insulin glargine versus insulin pump. Diabetes Tech Therapeut 2004;6:9-15
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Porcellati F, Rossetti P, Busciantella NR, et al. Comparison of pharmacokinetics and dynamics of the long-acting insulin analogs glargine and detemir at steady state in type 1 diabetes: a double-blind, randomized, crossover study. Diabetes Care 2007;30:2447-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstock J, Davies M, Home PD, et al. A randomised, 52-week, treat-to-target trial comparing insulin detemir with insulin glargine when administered as add-on to glucose-lowering drugs in insulin-naive people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2008;51:408-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swinnen SG, Dain MP, Aronson R, et al. A 24-week, randomized, treat-to-target trial comparing initiation of insulin glargine once-daily with insulin detemir twice-daily in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on oral glucose-lowering drugs. Diabetes Care;33:1176-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raskin P, Gylvin T, Weng W, et al. Comparison of insulin detemir and insulin glargine using a basal-bolus regimen in a randomized, controlled clinical study in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metabol Res Rev 2009;25:542-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dailey G, Admane K, Mercier F, et al. Relationship of insulin dose, A1c lowering, and weight in type 2 diabetes: comparing insulin glargine and insulin detemir. Diabetes Tech Therapeut;12:1019-27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paes AH, Bakker A, Soe-Agnie CJ. Impact of dosage frequency on patient compliance. Diabetes Care 1997;20:1512-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claxton AJ, Cramer J, Pierce C. A systematic review of the associations between dose regimens and medication compliance. Clin Therapeut 2001;23:1296-310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Insulin detemir (Levemir) prescribing information 2010. Available at: http://www.novomedlink.com/products/Levemir/levemir-home.aspx [Last accessed April 17, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Insulin glargine (Lantus) prescribing information (2009). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/021081s034lbl.pdf [Last accessed April 17, 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Karges B, Muche R, Riegger I, et al. Injection of acidic or neutral insulin and pain: a single-center, prospective, controlled, noninterventional study in pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Clin Therapeut 2006;28:2094-101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Home PD, Fritsche A, Schinzel S, et al. Meta-analysis of individual patient data to assess the risk of hypoglycaemia in people with type 2 diabetes using NPH insulin or insulin glargine. Diabetes Obes Metabol;12:772-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fajardo Montanana C, Hernandez Herrero C, Rivas Fernandez M. Less weight gain and hypoglycaemia with once-daily insulin detemir than NPH insulin in intensification of insulin therapy in overweight Type 2 diabetes patients: the PREDICTIVE BMI clinical trial. Diabet Med 2008;25:916-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstock J, Dailey G, Massi-Benedetti M, et al. Reduced hypoglycemia risk with insulin glargine: a meta-analysis comparing insulin glargine with human NPH insulin in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:950-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yki-Jarvinen H, Dressler A, Ziemen M. Less nocturnal hypoglycemia and better post-dinner glucose control with bedtime insulin glargine compared with bedtime NPH insulin during insulin combination therapy in type 2 diabetes. HOE 901/3002 Study Group. Diabetes Care 2000;23:1130-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Philis-Tsimikas A, Charpentier G, Clauson P, et al. Comparison of once-daily insulin detemir with NPH insulin added to a regimen of oral antidiabetic drugs in poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. Clin Therapeut 2006;28:1569-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsia SH. Insulin glargine compared to NPH among insulin-naive, U.S. inner city, ethnic minority type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract;91:293-9
   Google Scholar
• Bazzano LA, Lee LJ, Shi L, et al. Safety and efficacy of glargine compared with NPH insulin for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Diabet Med 2008;25:924-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegmund T, Weber S, Blankenfeld H, et al. Comparison of insulin glargine versus NPH insulin in people with Type 2 diabetes mellitus under outpatient-clinic conditions for 18 months using a basal-bolus regimen with a rapid-acting insulin analogue as mealtime insulin. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2007;115:349-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yokoyama H, Tada J, Kamikawa F, et al. Efficacy of conversion from bedtime NPH insulin to morning insulin glargine in type 2 diabetic patients on basal-prandial insulin therapy. Diabetes Research Clin Pract 2006;73:35-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollander P, Cooper J, Bregnhoj J, et al. A 52-week, multinational, open-label, parallel-group, noninferiority, treat-to-target trial comparing insulin detemir with insulin glargine in a basal-bolus regimen with mealtime insulin aspart in patients with type 2 diabetes. Clin Therapeut 2008;30:1976-87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zib I, Raskin P. Novel insulin analogues and its mitogenic potential. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2006;8:611-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtzhals P, Schaffer L, Sorensen A, et al. Correlations of receptor binding and metabolic and mitogenic potencies of insulin analogs designed for clinical use. Diabetes 2000;49:999-1005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dejgaard A, Lynggaard H, Rastam J, et al. No evidence of increased risk of malignancies in patients with diabetes treated with insulin detemir: a meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2009;52:2507-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FDA Drug Safety Communication: update to ongoing safety review of Lantus (insulin glargine) and possible risk of cancer. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm239376.htm [Last accessed 7 April 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Gamble JM, Simpson SH, Eurich DT, et al. Insulin use and increased risk of mortality in type 2 diabetes: a cohort study. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2010;12:47-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UKPDS Study Group authors. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet 1998;352:837-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pramlintide (Symlin) prescribing information (2008). Available at: https://www.symlin.com/pdf/SYMLIN-pi-combined.pdf [Last accessed 8 April 2011]
   Google Scholar
• Singh-Franco D, Perez A, Harrington C. The effect of pramlintide acetate on glycemic control and weight in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and in obese patients without diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metabol 2011;13:169-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddle M, Pencek R, Charenkavanich S, et al. Randomized comparison of pramlintide or mealtime insulin added to basal insulin treatment for patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1577-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee NJ, Norris SL, Thakurta S. Efficacy and harms of the hypoglycemic agent pramlintide in diabetes mellitus. Ann Fam Med 2010;8:542-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh-Franco D, Perez A, Harrington C. The effect of pramlintide acetate on glycemic control and weight in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and in obese patients without diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metabol 13:169-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wysham C, Lush C, Zhang B, et al. Effect of pramlintide as an adjunct to basal insulin on markers of cardiovascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes. Curr Med Res Opin 2008;24:79-85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu AZ, Qiu Y, Radican L. Impact of fear of insulin or fear of injection on treatment outcomes of patients with diabetes. Curr Med Res Opin 2009;25:1413-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar