Current evidence for the management of paediatric parapneumonic effusions

References

• Balfour-Lynn IM, Abrahamson E, Cohen G, et al. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children. Thorax 2005;60(Suppl 1):i1-21
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hernandez-Bou S, Garcia-Garcia JJ, Esteva C, et al. Pediatric parapneumonic pleural effusion: epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and microbiological diagnosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2009;44:1192-200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Light RW. Parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006;3:75-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colice GL, Curtis A, Deslauriers J, et al. Medical and surgical treatment of parapneumonic effusions: an evidence-based guideline. Chest 2000;118:1158-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies CW, Gleeson FV, Davies RJ. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection. Thorax 2003;58(Suppl 2):ii18-28
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Picard E, Joseph L, Goldberg S, et al. Predictive factors of morbidity in childhood parapneumonic effusion-associated pneumonia: a retrospective study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010;29:840-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckingham SC, King MD, Miller ML. Incidence and etiologies of complicated parapneumonic effusions in children, 1996 to 2001. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003;22:499-504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proesmans M, De Boeck K. Clinical practice: treatment of childhood empyema. Eur J Pediatr 2009;168:639-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride SC. Management of parapneumonic effusions in pediatrics: current practice. J Hosp Med 2008;3:263-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cremonesini D, Thomson AH. How should we manage empyema: antibiotics alone, fibrinolytics, or primary video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS)? Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2007;28:322-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahn SA. Diagnosis and management of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:1480-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shomaker KL, Weiner T, Esther CR Jr. Impact of an evidence-based algorithm on quality of care in pediatric parapneumonic effusion and empyema. Pediatr Pulmonol 2011;46:722-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calder A, Owens CM. Imaging of parapneumonic pleural effusions and empyema in children. Pediatr Radiol 2009;39:527-37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurian J, Levin TL, Han BK, et al. Comparison of ultrasound and CT in the evaluation of pneumonia complicated by parapneumonic effusion in children. Am J Roentgenol 2009;193:1648-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron RJ. Management of complicated parapneumonic effusions and thoracic empyema. Intern Med J 2002;32:408-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker A, Amantea SL, Fraga JC, et al. Impact of antibiotic therapy on laboratory analysis of parapneumonic pleural fluid in children. J Pediatr Surg 2011;46:452-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes NP, Hull J, Thomson AH. Medical management of parapneumonic pleural disease. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005;39:127-34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonnappa S, Cohen G, Owens CM, et al. Comparison of urokinase and video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery for treatment of childhood empyema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:221-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson AH, Hull J, Kumar MR, et al. Randomised trial of intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax 2002;57:343-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epaud R, Aubertin G, Larroquet M, et al. Conservative use of chest-tube insertion in children with pleural effusion. Pediatr Surg Int 2006;22:357-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoseyov D, Bibi H, Shatzberg G, et al. Short-term course and outcome of treatments of pleural empyema in pediatric patients: repeated ultrasound-guided needle thoracocentesis vs chest tube drainage. Chest 2002;121:836-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heffner JE, Klein JS, Hampson C. Interventional management of pleural infections. Chest 2009;136:1148-59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiu CY, Wong KS, Huang YC, et al. Echo-guided management of complicated parapneumonic effusion in children. Pediatr Pulmonol 2006;41:1226-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moulton JS, Benkert RE, Weisiger KH, et al. Treatment of complicated pleural fluid collections with image-guided drainage and intracavitary urokinase. Chest 1995;108:1252-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierrepoint MJ, Evans A, Morris SJ, et al. Pigtail catheter drain in the treatment of empyema thoracis. Arch Dis Child 2002;87:331-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu YH, Lin YC, Liang SJ, et al. Ultrasound-guided pigtail catheters for drainage of various pleural diseases. Am J Emerg Med 2010;28:915-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feola GP, Shaw LC, Coburn L. Management of complicated parapneumonic effusions in children. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol 2003;6:197-204
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wells RG, Havens PL. Intrapleural fibrinolysis for parapneumonic effusion and empyema in children. Radiology 2003;228:370-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan PW, Crawford O, Wallis C, et al. Treatment of pleural empyema. J Paediatr Child Health 2000;36:375-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demirhan R, Kosar A, Sancakli I, et al. Management of postpneumonic empyemas in children. Acta Chir Belg 2008;108:208-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eroglu E, Tekant G, Erdogan E, et al. Evolving experience in the management of pleural empyema. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2004;14:75-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aydogan M, Aydogan A, Ozcan A, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase treatment in children with empyema. Eur J Pediatr 2008;167:739-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoff SJ, Neblett WW, Edwards KM, et al. Parapneumonic empyema in children: decortication hastens recovery in patients with severe pleural infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991;10:194-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doski JJ, Lou D, Hicks BA, et al. Management of parapneumonic collections in infants and children. J Pediatr Surg 2000;35:265-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen G, Hjortdal V, Ricci M, et al. Primary thoracoscopic treatment of empyema in children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003;125:79-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho MY, Chen HY, Yen YH, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase for the treatment of childhood empyema. Acta Paediatr Taiwan 2007;48:251-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li ST, Gates RL. Primary operative management for pediatric empyema: decreases in hospital length of stay and charges in a national sample. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008;162:44-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maziah W, Choo KE, Ray JG, et al. Empyema thoracis in hospitalized children in Kelantan, Malaysia. J Trop Pediatr 1995;41:185-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies RJ, Traill ZC, Gleeson FV. Randomised controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase in community acquired pleural infection. Thorax 1997;52:416-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuncozgur B, Ustunsoy H, Sivrikoz MC, et al. Intrapleural urokinase in the management of parapneumonic empyema: a randomised controlled trial. Int J Clin Pract 2001;55:658-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diacon AH, Theron J, Schuurmans MM, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase for empyema and complicated parapneumonic effusions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;170:49-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misthos P, Sepsas E, Konstantinou M, et al. Early use of intrapleural fibrinolytics in the management of postpneumonic empyema. A prospective study. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2005;28:599-603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahn SA. Use of fibrinolytic agents in the management of complicated parapneumonic effusions and empyemas. Thorax 1998;53:S65-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouros D, Schiza S, Tzanakis N, et al. Intrapleural urokinase versus normal saline in the treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusions and empyema. A randomized, double-blind study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:37-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tokuda Y, Matsushima D, Stein GH, et al. Intrapleural fibrinolytic agents for empyema and complicated parapneumonic effusions: a meta-analysis. Chest 2006;129:783-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron R, Davies HR. Intra-pleural fibrinolytic therapy versus conservative management in the treatment of adult parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;2:CD002312
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singh M, Mathew JL, Chandra S, et al. Randomized controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase in empyema thoracis in children. Acta Paediatr 2004;93:1443-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilic N, Celebi S, Gurpinar A, et al. Management of thoracic empyema in children. Pediatr Surg Int 2002;18:21-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochran JB, Tecklenburg FW, Turner RB. Intrapleural instillation of fibrinolytic agents for treatment of pleural empyema. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003;4:39-43
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ulku R, Onat S, Kilic N. Intrapleural fibrinolytic treatment of multiloculated pediatric empyemas. Minerva Pediatr 2004;56:419-23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang JN, Yao CT, Yeh CN, et al. Once-daily vs. twice-daily intrapleural urokinase treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusion in paediatric patients: a randomised, prospective study. Int J Clin Pract 2006;60:1225-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier AH, Smith B, Raghavan A, et al. Rational treatment of empyema in children. Arch Surg 2000;135:907-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefanutti G, Ghirardo V, Barbato A, et al. Evaluation of a pediatric protocol of intrapleural urokinase for pleural empyema: a prospective study. Surgery 2010;148:589-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbato A, Panizzolo C, Monciotti C, et al. Use of urokinase in childhood pleural empyema. Pediatr Pulmonol 2003;35:50-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalil BA, Corbett PA, Jones MO, et al. Less is best? The impact of urokinase as the first line management of empyema thoracis. Pediatr Surg Int 2007;23:129-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates RL, Hogan M, Weinstein S, et al. Drainage, fibrinolytics, or surgery: a comparison of treatment options in pediatric empyema. J Pediatr Surg 2004;39:1638-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein M, Restrepo R, Chait PG, et al. Effectiveness and safety of tissue plasminogen activator in the management of complicated parapneumonic effusions. Pediatrics 2004;113:e182-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray TL, Berkenbosch JW, Russo P, et al. Tissue plasminogen activator as an adjuvant therapy for pleural empyema in pediatric patients. J Intensive Care Med 2004;19:44-50
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Balci AE, Eren S, Ulku R, et al. Management of multiloculated empyema thoracis in children: thoracotomy versus fibrinolytic treatment. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2002;22:595-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avansino JR, Goldman B, Sawin RS, et al. Primary operative versus nonoperative therapy for pediatric empyema: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2005;115:1652-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouros D, Schiza S, Patsourakis G, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase versus urokinase in the treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusions: a prospective, double-blind study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:291-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson G, Roomes D, Heron M. Effects of streptokinase and deoxyribonuclease on viscosity of human surgical and empyema pus. Chest 2000;117:1728-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson G, Roomes D, Reeves B. Successful treatment of empyema thoracis with human recombinant deoxyribonuclease. Thorax 2003;58:365-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med 2005;352:865-74
   Google Scholar
• Davies CW, Lok S, Davies RJ. The systemic fibrinolytic activity of intrapleural streptokinase. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:328-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skeete DA, Rutherford EJ, Schlidt SA, et al. Intrapleural tissue plasminogen activator for complicated pleural effusions. J Trauma 2004;57:1178-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blom D, van Aalderen WM, Alders JM, et al. Life-threatening hemothorax in a child following intrapleural administration of urokinase. Pediatr Pulmonol 2000;30:493
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalfa N, Allal H, Lopez M, et al. Thoracoscopy in pediatric pleural empyema: a prospective study of prognostic factors. J Pediatr Surg 2006;41:1732-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayo P, Saha SP, McElvein RB. Acute empyema in children treated by open thoracotomy and decortication. Ann Thorac Surg 1982;34:401-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy AS, Agness M, Bailey L, et al. Decortication for childhood empyema. The primary provider's peccadillo. Arch Surg 1991;126:1287-91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gofrit ON, Engelhard D, Abu-Dalu K. Post-pneumonic thoracic empyema in children: a continued surgical challenge. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1999;9:4-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karaman I, Erdogan D, Karaman A, et al. Comparison of closed-tube thoracostomy and open thoracotomy procedures in the management of thoracic empyema in childhood. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2004;14:250-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexiou C, Goyal A, Firmin RK, et al. Is open thoracotomy still a good treatment option for the management of empyema in children? Ann Thorac Surg 2003;76:1854-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kercher KW, Attorri RJ, Hoover JD, et al. Thoracoscopic decortication as first-line therapy for pediatric parapneumonic empyema. A case series. Chest 2000;118:24-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kurt BA, Winterhalter KM, Connors RH, et al. Therapy of parapneumonic effusions in children: video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery versus conventional thoracostomy drainage. Pediatrics 2006;118:e547-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates RL, Caniano DA, Hayes JR, et al. Does VATS provide optimal treatment of empyema in children? A systematic review. J Pediatr Surg 2004;39:381-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang YT, Dai ZK, Kao EL, et al. Thoracoscopic decortication: first-line therapy for pediatric empyema. Eur Surg Res 2005;37:18-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez-Ferro M, Duarte S, Laje P. Single-port thoracoscopy for the treatment of pleural empyema in children. J Pediatr Surg 2004;39:1194-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu HP, Hsieh MJ, Lu HI, et al. Thoracoscopic-assisted management of postpneumonic empyema in children refractory to medical response. Surg Endosc 2002;16:1612-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klena JW, Cameron BH, Langer JC, et al. Timing of video-assisted thoracoscopic debridement for pediatric empyema. J Am Coll Surg 1998;187:404-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bishay M, Short M, Shah K, et al. Efficacy of video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery in managing childhood empyema: a large single-centre study. J Pediatr Surg 2009;44:337-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wait MA, Sharma S, Hohn J, et al. A randomized trial of empyema therapy. Chest 1997;111:1548-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coote N. Surgical versus non-surgical management of pleural empyema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;2:CD001956
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coote N, Kay E. Surgical versus non-surgical management of pleural empyema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005 Oct 19;4:CD001956
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen CY, Chen JS, Huang LM, et al. Favorable outcome of parapneumonic empyema in children managed by primary video-assisted thoracoscopic debridement. J Formos Med Assoc 2003;102:845-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton RM, Abrams RS, Gauderer MW. Is thoracoscopically aided pleural debridement advantageous in children? Am Surg 1999;65:69-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier AH, Hess CB, Cilley RE. Complications and treatment failures of video-assisted thoracoscopic debridement for pediatric empyema. Pediatr Surg Int 2010;26:367-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knudtson J, Grewal H. Pediatric empyema – an algorithm for early thoracoscopic intervention. J Soc Laparoendosc Surg 2004;8:31-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dzielicki J, Korlacki W. The role of thoracoscopy in the treatment of pleural empyema in children. Surg Endosc 2006;20:1402-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oak SN, Parelkar SV, Satishkumar KV, et al. Review of video-assisted thoracoscopy in children. J Minim Access Surg 2009;5:57-62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pappalardo E, Laungani A, Demarche M, et al. Early thoracoscopy for the management of empyema in children. Acta Chir Belg 2009;109:602-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St Peter SD, Tsao K, Spilde TL, et al. Thoracoscopic decortication vs tube thoracostomy with fibrinolysis for empyema in children: a prospective, randomized trial. J Pediatr Surg 2009;44:106-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider CR, Gauderer MW, Blackhurst D, et al. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery as a primary intervention in pediatric parapneumonic effusion and empyema. Am Surg 2010;76:957-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aziz A, Healey JM, Qureshi F, et al. Comparative analysis of chest tube thoracostomy and video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery in empyema and parapneumonic effusion associated with pneumonia in children. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2008;9:317-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padman R, King KA, Iqbal S, et al. Parapneumonic effusion and empyema in children: retrospective review of the duPont experience. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2007;46:518-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krenke K, Peradzynska J, Lange J, et al. Local treatment of empyema in children: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Acta Paediatr 2010;99:1449-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahant S, Cohen E, Weinstein M, et al. Video-assisted thorascopic surgery vs chest drain with fibrinolytics for the treatment of pleural empyema in children: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2010;164:201-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sit SC, Cohen G, Jaffe A. Urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax 2003;58:93, author reply 4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalfa N, Allal H, Montes-Tapia F, et al. Ideal timing of thoracoscopic decortication and drainage for empyema in children. Surg Endosc 2004;18:472-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redding GJ, Walund L, Walund D, et al. Lung function in children following empyema. Am J Dis Child 1990;144:1337-42
   PubMedGoogle Scholar