Clostridium difficile infection in children: a comprehensive review

References

• Guerrant RL, Hughes JM, Lima NL, et al. Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12(Suppl 1):S41-50
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McFarland LV. Epidemiology of infectious and iatrogenic nosocomial diarrhea in a cohort of general medicine patients. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:295-305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venugopal AA, Johnson S. Current state of Clostridium difficile treatment options. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55(Suppl 2):S71-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lessa FC, Gould CV, McDonald LC. Current status of Clostridium difficile infection epidemiology. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55(Suppl 2):S65-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klatte JM, Myers AL, Livingston RA, et al. Pediatric physicians' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs regarding Clostridium difficile-associated disease prevention, testing, and treatment. Am J Infect Control 2012;40:577
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund CM, Goudie A, Garza JM, et al. Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized children in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2011;165:451-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zilberberg MD, Tillotson GS, et al. Clostridium difficile infections among hospitalized children, United States, 1997–2006. Emerg Infect Dis 2010;16:604-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim J, Smathers SA, Prasad P, et al. Epidemiological features of Clostridium difficile-associated disease among inpatients at children's hospitals in the United States, 2001–2006. Pediatrics 2008;122:1266-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande A, Pant C, Anderson MP, et al. Clostridium difficile infection in the hospitalized pediatric population: increasing trend in disease incidence. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2013. [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sammons JS, Localio R, Xiao R, et al. Clostridium difficile infection is associated with increased risk of death and prolonged hospitalization in children. Clin Infect Dis 2013. [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricciardi R, Rothenberger DA, Madoff RD, et al. Increasing prevalence and severity of Clostridium difficile colitis in hospitalized patients in the United States. Arch Surg 2007;142:624-31; discussion 31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labbe AC, Poirier L, MacCannell D, et al. Clostridium difficile infections in a Canadian tertiary care hospital before and during a regional epidemic associated with the BI/NAP1/027 strain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:3180-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wysowski DK. Increase in deaths related to enterocolitis due to Clostridium difficile in the United States, 1999–2002. Public Health Rep 2006;121:361-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller M, Gravel D, Mulvey M, et al. Health care-associated Clostridium difficile infection in Canada: patient age and infecting strain type are highly predictive of severe outcome and mortality. Clin Infect Dis 2010;50:194-201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenisch JM, Schmid D, Kuo HW, et al. Hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: determinants for severe disease. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2012;31:1923-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toltzis P, Kim J, Dul M, et al. Presence of the epidemic North American Pulsed Field type 1 Clostridium difficile strain in hospitalized children. J Pediatr 2009;154:607-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoesser N, Crook DW, Fung R, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Clostridium difficile strains in children compared with that of strains circulating in adults with Clostridium difficile-associated infection. J Clin Microbiol 2011;49:3994-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald LC, Killgore GE, Thompson A, et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2433-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacCannell DR, Louie TJ, Gregson DB, et al. Molecular analysis of Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 027 isolates from Eastern and Western Canada. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:2147-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muto CA, Blank MK, Marsh JW, et al. Control of an outbreak of infection with the hypervirulent Clostridium difficile BI strain in a university hospital using a comprehensive ‘bundle' approach. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:1266-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson L, Song X, Campos J, et al. Changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in children. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:1233-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen MB. Clostridium difficile infections: emerging epidemiology and new treatments. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48(Suppl 2):S63-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sandora TJ, Fung M, Flaherty K, et al. Epidemiology and risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:580-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna S, Baddour LM, Huskins WC, et al. The epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection in children: a population-based study. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:1401--6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim K, DuPont HL, Pickering LK. Outbreaks of diarrhea associated with Clostridium difficile and its toxin in day-care centers: evidence of person-to-person spread. J Pediatr 1983;102:376-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuki S, Ozaki E, Shozu M, et al. Colonization by Clostridium difficile of neonates in a hospital, and infants and children in three day-care facilities of Kanazawa, Japan. Int Microbiol 2005;8:43-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjelt K, Nielson OH, Paerregaard A, et al. Acute gastroenteritis in children attending day-care centres with special reference to rotavirus infections. II. Clinical manifestations. Acta Paediatr Scand 1987;76:763-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG, Gerding DN. Clinical recognition and diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46(Suppl 1):S12-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31:431-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande A, Pant C, Jain A, et al. Do fluoroquinolones predispose patients to Clostridium difficile associated disease? A review of the evidence. Curr Med Res Opin 2008;24:329-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diggs NG, Surawicz CM. Evolving concepts in Clostridium difficile colitis. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2009;11:400-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McDonald LC, Owings M, Jernigan DB. Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged from US short-stay hospitals, 1996–2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:409-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pant C, Madonia P, Minocha A. Does PPI therapy predispose to Clostridium difficile infection? Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;6:555-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vesteinsdottir I, Gudlaugsdottir S, Einarsdottir R, et al. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile toxin-positive diarrhea: a population-based prospective case–control study. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2012;31:2601-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerding DN. Clostridium difficile 30 years on: what has, or has not, changed and why? Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009;33(Suppl 1):S2-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Owens RC Jr, Donskey CJ, Gaynes RP, et al. Antimicrobial-associated risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46(Suppl 1):S19-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ananthakrishnan AN. Clostridium difficile infection: epidemiology, risk factors and management. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;8:17-26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivarsson ME, Leroux JC, Castagner B. Targeting bacterial toxins. Angewandte Chemie 2012;51:4024-45
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim KH, Suh IS, Kim JM, et al. Etiology of childhood diarrhea in Korea. J Clin Microbiol 1989;27:1192-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denno DM, Stapp JR, Boster DR, et al. Etiology of diarrhea in pediatric outpatient settings. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005;24:142-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pai S, Aliyu SH, Enoch DA, et al. Five years experience of Clostridium difficile infection in children at a UK tertiary hospital: proposed criteria for diagnosis and management. PloS One 2012;7:e51728
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis ME, Mandal BK, Dunbar EM, et al. Clostridium difficile and its cytotoxin in infants admitted to hospital with infectious gastroenteritis. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984;288:524-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meropol SB, Luberti AA, De Jong AR. Yield from stool testing of pediatric inpatients. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1997;151:142-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morinville V, McDonald J. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in 200 Canadian children. Can J Gastroenterol 2005;19:497-501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oguz F, Uysal G, Dasdemir S, et al. The role of Clostridium difficile in childhood nosocomial diarrhea. Scand J Infect Dis 2001;33:731-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein EJ, Boster DR, Stapp JR, et al. Diarrhea etiology in a children's hospital emergency department: a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:807-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Blank P, Zaoutis T, Fisher B, et al. Trends in Clostridium difficile infection and risk factors for hospital acquisition of Clostridium difficile among children with cancer. J Pediatr 2013. [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard J, Marshall JK, Moayyedi P. Systematic review of the risk of enteric infection in patients taking acid suppression. Am J Gastroenterol 2007;102:2047-56; quiz 57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howell MD, Novack V, Grgurich P, et al. Iatrogenic gastric acid suppression and the risk of nosocomial Clostridium difficile infection. Arch Intern Med 2010;170:784-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams C, McColl KE. Review article: proton pump inhibitors and bacterial overgrowth. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2006;23:3-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janarthanan S, Ditah I, Adler DG, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and proton pump inhibitor therapy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107:1001-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande A, Pant C, Pasupuleti V, et al. Association between proton pump inhibitor therapy and Clostridium difficile infection in a meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;10:225-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turco R, Martinelli M, Miele E, et al. Proton pump inhibitors as a risk factor for paediatric Clostridium difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010;31:754-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascarella F, Martinelli M, Miele E, et al. Impact of Clostridium difficile infection on pediatric inflammatory bowel disease. J Pediatr 2009;154:854-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pohl JF, Patel R, Zobell JT, et al. Clostridium difficile infection and proton pump inhibitor use in hospitalized pediatric cystic fibrosis patients. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2011;2011:345012
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bliss DZ, Johnson S, Savik K, et al. Acquisition of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in hospitalized patients receiving tube feeding. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:1012-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yokohama S, Aoshima M, Asama T, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated enteric disease after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. J Gastroenterol 2009;44:121-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Keefe SJ. Tube feeding, the microbiota, and Clostridium difficile infection. World J Gastroenterol 2010;16:139-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lukkarinen H, Eerola E, Ruohola A, et al. Clostridium difficile ribotype 027-associated disease in children with norovirus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:847-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gryboski JD, Pellerano R, Young N, et al. Positive role of Clostridium difficile infection in diarrhea in infants and children. Am J Gastroenterol 1991;86:685-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perlmutter DH, Leichtner AM, Goldman H, et al. Chronic diarrhea associated with hypogammaglobulinemia and enteropathy in infants and children. Dig Dis Sci 1985;30:1149-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepin J, Vo TT, Boutros M, et al. Risk factors for mortality following emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection. Dis Colon Rectum 2009;52:400-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gujja D, Friedenberg FK. Predictors of serious complications due to Clostridium difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Therapeut 2009;29:635-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henrich TJ, Krakower D, Bitton A, et al. Clinical risk factors for severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2009;15:415-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moshkowitz M, Ben-Baruch E, Kline Z, et al. Risk factors for severity and relapse of pseudomembranous colitis in an elderly population. Colorectal Dis 2007;9:173-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepin J, Saheb N, Coulombe MA, et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:1254-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhangu A, Czapran A, Bhangu S, et al. Optimum timing of blood tests for monitoring patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Investig Med 2010;58:621-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfhagen MJ, Meijer K, Fluit AC, et al. Clinical significance of Clostridium difficile and its toxins in faeces of immunocompromised children. Gut 1994;35:1608-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castagnola E, Battaglia T, Bandettini R, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated disease in children with solid tumors. Support Care Cancer 2009;17:321-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon A, Ammann RA, Bode U, et al. Healthcare-associated infections in pediatric cancer patients: results of a prospective surveillance study from university hospitals in Germany and Switzerland. BMC Infect Dis 2008;8:70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tai E, Richardson LC, Townsend J, et al. Clostridium difficile infection among children with cancer. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:610-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosen JB, Schecter MG, Heinle JS, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis in children following lung transplantation. Pediatr Transplant 2010;14:651-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mezoff E, Mann EA, Hart KW, et al. Clostridium difficile infection and treatment in the pediatric inflammatory bowel disease population. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2011;52:437-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunetto AL, Pearson AD, Craft AW, et al. Clostridium difficile in an oncology unit. Arch Dis Child 1988;63:979-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgner D, Siarakas S, Eagles G, et al. A prospective study of Clostridium difficile infection and colonization in pediatric oncology patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997;16:1131-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murabata M, Kato H, Yano H, et al. [Intestinal colonization and nosocomial spread of Clostridium difficile in pediatric cancer patients under long-term hospitalization]. Kansenshogaku Zasshi 2008;82:419-26
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wultanska D, Banaszkiewicz A, Radzikowski A, et al. Clostridium difficile infection in Polish pediatric outpatients with inflammatory bowel disease. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2010;29:1265-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banaszkiewicz A, Kowalska-Duplaga K, Pytrus T, et al. Clostridium difficile infection in newly diagnosed pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease: prevalence and risk factors. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 2012;18:844-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pant C, Anderson MP, Deshpande A, et al. Health care burden of Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized children with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 2013;19:1080-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas DF, Fernie DS, Bayston R, et al. Enterocolitis in Hirschsprung's disease: a controlled study of the etiologic role of Clostridium difficile. J Pediatr Surg 1986;21:22-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urushihara N, Kohno S, Hasegawa S. Pseudomembranous enterocolitis and hemorrhagic necrotizing enterocolitis in Hirschsprung's disease. Surg Today 1994;24:221-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson CM Jr, Gilligan PH, Fisher MC, et al. Clostridium difficile cytotoxin in a pediatric population. Am J Dis Child 1983;137:271-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hussain SZ, Chu C, Greenberg DP, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis in children with cystic fibrosis. Dig Dis Sci 2004;49:116-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivlin J, Lerner A, Augarten A, et al. Severe Clostridium difficile-associated colitis in young patients with cystic fibrosis. J Pediatr 1998;132:177-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yates B, Murphy DM, Fisher AJ, et al. Pseudomembranous colitis in four patients with cystic fibrosis following lung transplantation. Thorax 2007;62:554-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qualman SJ, Petric M, Karmali MA, et al. Clostridium difficile invasion and toxin circulation in fatal pediatric pseudomembranous colitis. Am J Clin Pathol 1990;94:410-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schechter R, Peterson B, McGee J, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis associated with infant botulism: near-fatal case analogous to Hirschsprung's enterocolitis. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:367-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons SJ, Fenton E, Dargaville P. Clostridium difficile associated severe enterocolitis: a feature of Hirschsprung's disease in a neonate presenting late. J Paediatr Child Health 2005;41:689-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brearly S, Armstrong GR, Nairn R, et al. Pseudomembranous colitis: a lethal complication of Hirschsprung's disease unrelated to antibiotic usage. J Pediatr Surg 1987;22:257-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas DF, Fernie DS, Malone M, et al. Association between Clostridium difficile and enterocolitis in Hirschsprung's disease. Lancet 1982;1:78-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagwell CE, Langham MR Jr, Mahaffey SM, et al. Pseudomembranous colitis following resection for Hirschsprung's disease. J Pediatr Surg 1992;27:1261-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boey CC, Ramanujam TM, Looi LM. Clostridium difficile-related necrotizing pseudomembranous enteritis in association with Henoch-Schonlein purpura. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997;24:426-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narchi H, Beattie TJ, Taylor RG, et al. Pseudomembranous colitis in association with Henoch Schonlein purpura. Scott Med J 1988;33:308-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooney N, Variend S, Taitz LS. Haemolytic uraemic syndrome and pseudomembranous colitis. Pediatr Nephrol 1988;2:415-18
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Theunissen C, Knoop C, Nonhoff C, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis in cystic fibrosis patients with and without lung transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 2008;10:240-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bignardi GE, Staples K, Majmudar N. A case of norovirus and Clostridium difficile infection: casual or causal relationship? J Hosp Infect 2007;67:198-200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentini D, Vittucci AC, Grandin A, et al. Coinfection in acute gastroenteritis predicts a more severe clinical course in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2013. [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim J, Shaklee JF, Smathers S, et al. Risk factors and outcomes associated with severe Clostridium difficile infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012;31:134-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelsen JR, Kim J, Latta D, et al. Recurrence rate of clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 2011;17:50-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Matary W, Soleimani M, Spady D, et al. Typhlitis in children with malignancy: a single center experience. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2011;33:e98-100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salkind AR. Clostridium difficile: an update for the primary care clinician. South Med J 2010;103:896-902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG. Narrative review: the new epidemic of Clostridium difficile-associated enteric disease. Ann Intern Med 2006;145:758-64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kachrimanidou M, Malisiovas N. Clostridium difficile infection: a comprehensive review. Crit Rev Microbiol 2011;37:178-87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pant C, Sferra TJ, Deshpande A, et al. Clinical approach to severe Clostridium difficile infection: update for the hospital practitioner. Eur J Intern Med 2011;22:561-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giesemann T, Egerer M, Jank T, et al. Processing of Clostridium difficile toxins. J Med Microbiol 2008;57(Pt 6):690-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll KC, Bartlett JG. Biology of Clostridium difficile: implications for epidemiology and diagnosis. Annu Rev Microbiol 2011;65:501-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voth DE, Ballard JD. Clostridium difficile toxins: mechanism of action and role in disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005;18:247-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tonna I, Welsby PD. Pathogenesis and treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Postgrad Med J 2005;81:367-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hookman P, Barkin JS. Clostridium difficile associated infection, diarrhea and colitis. World J Gastroenterol 2009;15:1554-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly CP, Pothoulakis C, Orellana J, et al. Human colonic aspirates containing immunoglobulin A antibody to Clostridium difficile toxin A inhibit toxin A-receptor binding. Gastroenterology 1992;102:35-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura S, Mikawa M, Nakashio S, et al. Isolation of Clostridium difficile from the feces and the antibody in sera of young and elderly adults. Microbiol Immunol 1981;25:345-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez-Hurtado K, Corretge M, Mutlu E, et al. Systemic antibody response to Clostridium difficile in colonized patients with and without symptoms and matched controls. J Med Microbiol 2008;57(Pt 6):717-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viscidi R, Laughon BE, Yolken R, et al. Serum antibody response to toxins A and B of Clostridium difficile. J Infect Dis 1983;148:93-100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, Kelly CP. Asymptomatic carriage of Clostridium difficile and serum levels of IgG antibody against toxin A. N Engl J Med 2000;342:390-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly CP. Immune response to Clostridium difficile infection. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1996;8:1048-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyne L, Kelly CP. Prospects for a vaccine for Clostridium difficile. BioDrugs 1998;10:173-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, et al. Association between antibody response to toxin A and protection against recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Lancet 2001;357:189-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulligan ME, Miller SD, McFarland LV, et al. Elevated levels of serum immunoglobulins in asymptomatic carriers of Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16(Suppl 4):S239-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang ZD, Garey KW, Price M, et al. Association of interleukin-8 polymorphism and immunoglobulin G anti-toxin A in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007;5:964-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA, et al. A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2442-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller MA, Hyland M, Ofner-Agostini M, et al; Canadian Hospital Epidemiology Committee. Canadian Nosocomial Infection Surveillance P. Morbidity, mortality, and healthcare burden of nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in Canadian hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:137-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Clarridge JE, Beneda HW, et al. Fluoroquinolone use and risk factors for Clostridium difficile – associated disease within a veterans' administration health care system. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:1141-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zilberberg MD, Shorr AF, Kollef MH. Increase in adult Clostridium difficile-related hospitalizations and case-fatality rate, United States, 2000–2005. Emerg Infect Dis 2008;14:929-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyne L, Hamel MB, Polavaram R, et al. Health care costs and mortality associated with nosocomial diarrhea due to Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:346-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Brien JA, Lahue BJ, Caro JJ, et al. The emerging infectious challenge of clostridium difficile-associated disease in Massachusetts hospitals: clinical and economic consequences. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:1219-27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrella LA, Sambol SP, Cheknis A, et al. Decreased cure and increased recurrence rates for Clostridium difficile infection caused by the epidemic C. difficile BI strain. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:351-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, et al. Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 2005;366:1079-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Connor JR, Johnson S, Gerding DN. Clostridium difficile infection caused by the epidemic BI/NAP1/027 strain. Gastroenterology 2009;136:1913-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labbe AC, Poirier L, Maccannell D, et al. Clostridium difficile infections in a Canadian tertiary care hospital before and during a regional epidemic associated with the BI/NAP1/027 strain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:3180-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen MB. Clostridium difficile infections: emerging epidemiology and new treatments. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48(Suppl 2):S63-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McFarland LV. Renewed interest in a difficult disease: Clostridium difficile infections – epidemiology and current treatment strategies. Curr Opin Gastroen 2009;25:24-35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Jumaili IJ, Shibley M, Lishman AH, et al. Incidence and origin of Clostridium difficile in neonates. J Clin Microbiol 1984;19:77-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson HE, Barclay FE, Honour P, et al. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile in infants. J Infect Dis 1982;146:727-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wultanska D, Obuch-Woszczatynski P, Banaszkiewicz A, et al. [Prevalence of Clostridium difficile in the gastrointestinal tract of hospitalized children under two years of age]. Med Dosw Mikrobiol 2010;62:77-84
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McFarland LV, Mulligan ME, Kwok RY, et al. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 1989;320:204-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooperstock M, Riegle L, Woodruff CW, et al. Influence of age, sex, and diet on asymptomatic colonization of infants with Clostridium difficile. J Clin Microbiol 1983;17:830-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jangi S, Lamont JT. Asymptomatic colonization by Clostridium difficile in infants: implications for disease in later life. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2010;51:2-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enoch DA, Butler MJ, Pai S, et al. Clostridium difficile in children: colonisation and disease. J Infection 2011;63:105-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boenning DA, Fleisher GR, Campos JM, et al. Clostridium difficile in a pediatric outpatient population. Pediatr Infect Dis 1982;1:336-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferreira CE, Nakano V, Durigon EL, et al. Prevalence of Clostridium spp. and Clostridium difficile in children with acute diarrhea in Sao Paulo city, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2003;98:451-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naaber P, Smidt I, Stsepetova J, et al. Inhibition of Clostridium difficile strains by intestinal Lactobacillus species. J Med Microbiol 2004;53(Pt 6):551-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolfe RD, Song W. Immunoglobulin and non-immunoglobulin components of human milk inhibit Clostridium difficile toxin A-receptor binding. J Med Microbiol 1995;42:10-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trejo FM, Minnaard J, Perez PF, et al. Inhibition of Clostridium difficile growth and adhesion to enterocytes by Bifidobacterium supernatants. Anaerobe 2006;12:186-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eglow R, Pothoulakis C, Itzkowitz S, et al. Diminished Clostridium difficile toxin A sensitivity in newborn rabbit ileum is associated with decreased toxin A receptor. J Clin Invest 1992;90:822-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rousseau C, Lemee L, Le Monnier A, et al. Prevalence and diversity of Clostridium difficile strains in infants. J Med Microbiol 2011;60(Pt 8):1112-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leav BA, Blair B, Leney M, et al. Serum anti-toxin B antibody correlates with protection from recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Vaccine 2010;28:965-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penders J, Thijs C, van den Brandt PA, et al. Gut microbiota composition and development of atopic manifestations in infancy: the KOALA Birth Cohort Study. Gut 2007;56:661-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjogren YM, Jenmalm MC, Bottcher MF, et al. Altered early infant gut microbiota in children developing allergy up to 5 years of age. Clin Exp Allergy 2009;39:518-26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcox MH, Mooney L, Bendall R, et al. A case–control study of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008;62:388-96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hecker MT, Riggs MM, Hoyen CK, et al. Recurrent infection with epidemic Clostridium difficile in a peripartum woman whose infant was asymptomatically colonized with the same strain. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:956-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayedy L, Kothari D, Richards RJ. Toxic megacolon associated Clostridium difficile colitis. World J Gastrointest Endosc 2010;2:293-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mylonakis E, Ryan ET, Calderwood SB. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a review. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:525-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly CP, LaMont JT. Clostridium difficile – more difficult than ever. N Engl J Med 2008;359:1932-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sailhamer EA, Carson K, Chang Y, et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: patterns of care and predictors of mortality. Arch Surg 2009;144:433-9; discussion 39-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nomura K, Fujimoto Y, Yamashita M, et al. Absence of pseudomembranes in Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients using immunosuppression agents. Scand J Gastroenterol 2009;44:74-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koo HL, Koo DC, Musher DM, et al. Antimotility agents for the treatment of Clostridium difficile diarrhea and colitis. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:598-605
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pokorn M, Radsel A, Cizman M, et al. Severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008;27:944-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerquetti M, Luzzi I, Caprioli A, et al. Role of Clostridium difficile in childhood diarrhea. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995;14:598-603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell DK, Van R, Mason EH, et al. Prospective study of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in children given amoxicillin/clavulanate for otitis media. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996;15:514-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vernacchio L, Vezina RM, Mitchell AA, et al. Diarrhea in American infants and young children in the community setting: incidence, clinical presentation and microbiology. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006;25:2-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams RN, Hemingway D, Miller AS. Enteral Clostridium difficile, an emerging cause for high-output ileostomy. J Clin Pathol 2009;62:951-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JH, Muder RR. Clostridium difficile enteritis: a review and pooled analysis of the cases. Anaerobe 2011;17:52-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsiouris A, Neale JA, Reickert CA, et al. Clostridium difficile of the ileum following total abdominal colectomy, with or without proctectomy: who is at risk? Dis Colon Rectum 2012;55:424-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dacheux C, Pruvost I, Herbaux B, et al. [Clostridium difficile reactive arthritis in a 7-year-old child]. Arch Pediatr 2012;19:607-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs A, Barnard K, Fishel R, et al. Extracolonic manifestations of Clostridium difficile infections. Presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2001;80:88-101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cron RQ, Gordon PV. Reactive arthritis to Clostridium difficile in a child. West J Med 1997;166:419-21
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Durand CL, Miller PF. Severe Clostridium difficile colitis and reactive arthritis in a ten-year-old child. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:750-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loffler HA, Pron B, Mouy R, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated reactive arthritis in two children. Joint Bone Spine 2004;71:60-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buts JP, Corthier G, Delmee M. Saccharomyces boulardii for Clostridium difficile-associated enteropathies in infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1993;16:419-25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gianerilli P, Luzzi I, Occhionero M, et al. Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens in upper gut of infants with protracted diarrhoea. J Clin Pathol 1985;38:1196
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutphen JL, Grand RJ, Flores A, et al. Chronic diarrhea associated with Clostridium difficile in children. Am J Dis Child 1983;137:275-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liston TE. Clostridium difficile toxin associated with chronic diarrhea and failure to gain weight. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1983;22:458-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boissieu D, Chaussain M, Badoual J, et al. Small-bowel bacterial overgrowth in children with chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, or both. J Pediatr 1996;128:203-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vernacchio L, Vezina RM, Mitchell AA, et al. Characteristics of persistent diarrhea in a community-based cohort of young US children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006;43:52-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crobach MJ, Dekkers OM, Wilcox MH, et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID): data review and recommendations for diagnosing Clostridium difficile-infection (CDI). Clin Microbiol Infect 2009;15:1053-66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pant C, Sferra TJ, Bass PF, et al. Letter in response to the article ‘Optimum timing of blood tests for monitoring patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea'. J Investig Med 2010;58:621-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardt C, Berns T, Treder W, et al. Univariate and multivariate analysis of risk factors for severe Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: importance of co-morbidity and serum C-reactive protein. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:4338-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande A, Pasupuleti V, Rolston DD, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of real-time polymerase chain reaction in detection of Clostridium difficile in the stool samples of patients with suspected Clostridium difficile infection: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53:e81-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant K, McDonald LC. Clostridium difficile infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:145-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubberke ER, Gerding DN, Classen D, et al. Strategies to prevent Clostridium difficile infections in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29(Suppl 1):S81-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schutze GE, Willoughby RE, Committee on Infectious D, American Academy of P. Clostridium difficile infection in infants and children. Pediatrics 2013;131:196-200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin H, Willey B, Low DE, et al. Characterization of Clostridium difficile strains isolated from patients in Ontario, Canada, from 2004 to 2006. J Clin Microbiol 2008;46:2999-3004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luna RA, Boyanton BL Jr, Mehta S, et al. Rapid stool-based diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection by real-time PCR in a children's hospital. J Clin Microbiol 2011;49:851-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toltzis P, Nerandzic MM, Saade E, et al. High proportion of false-positive Clostridium difficile enzyme immunoassays for toxin A and B in pediatric patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2012;33:175-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snell H, Ramos M, Longo S, et al. Performance of the TechLab C. DIFF CHEK-60 enzyme immunoassay (EIA) in combination with the C. difficile Tox A/B II EIA kit, the Triage C. difficile panel immunoassay, and a cytotoxin assay for diagnosis of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42:4863-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:459-77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ota KV, McGowan KL. Clostridium difficile testing algorithms using glutamate dehydrogenase antigen and C. difficile toxin enzyme immunoassays with C. difficile nucleic acid amplification testing increase diagnostic yield in a tertiary pediatric population. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:1185-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selvaraju SB, Gripka M, Estes K, et al. Detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in pediatric stool samples: an evaluation of Quik Check Complete Antigen assay, BD GeneOhm Cdiff PCR, and ProGastro Cd PCR assays. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2011;71:224-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ash L, Baker ME, O'Malley CM Jr, et al. Colonic abnormalities on CT in adult hospitalized patients with Clostridium difficile colitis: prevalence and significance of findings. Am J Roentgenol 2006;186:1393-400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkart NE, Kwaan MR, Shepela C, et al. Indications and relative utility of lower endoscopy in the management of Clostridium difficile infection. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2011;2011:626582
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bartlett JG. Clinical practice. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. N Engl J Med 2002;346:334-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Issa M, Vijayapal A, Graham MB, et al. Impact of Clostridium difficile on inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007;5:345-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartong WA, Arvanitakis C, Skibba RM, et al. Treatment of toxic megacolon. A comparative review of 29 patients. Am J Dig Dis 1977;22:195-200
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Augestad KM, Delaney CP. Postoperative ileus: impact of pharmacological treatment, laparoscopic surgery and enhanced recovery pathways. World J Gastroenterol 2010;16:2067-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson S, Homann SR, Bettin KM, et al. Treatment of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriers (fecal excretors) with vancomycin or metronidazole. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:297-302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG. The case for vancomycin as the preferred drug for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:1489-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM, et al. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:302-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shannon-Lowe J, Matheson NJ, Cooke FJ, et al. Prevention and medical management of Clostridium difficile infection. BMJ 2010;340:c1296
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Le F, Arora V, Shah DN, et al. A real-world evaluation of oral vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile infection: implications for antibiotic stewardship programs. Pharmacotherapy 2012;32:129-34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louie TJ, Peppe J, Watt CK, et al. Tolevamer, a novel nonantibiotic polymer, compared with vancomycin in the treatment of mild to moderately severe Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:411-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepin J. Vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: for whom is this expensive bullet really magic? Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:1493-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim PK, Huh HC, Cohen HW et al. Intracolonic vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile colitis. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2013. [Epub ahead of print]
   Google Scholar
• Apisarnthanarak A, Razavi B, Mundy LM. Adjunctive intracolonic vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile colitis: case series and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:690-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bublin JG. Rectal use of vancomycin. Ann Pharmacother 1994;28:1357-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasic M, Jost R, Carrel T, et al. Intracolonic vancomycin for pseudomembranous colitis. New Engl J Med 1993;329:583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herpers BL, Vlaminckx B, Burkhardt O, et al. Intravenous tigecycline as adjunctive or alternative therapy for severe refractory Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1732-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 2011;364:422-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller M. Fidaxomicin (OPT-80) for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010;11:1569-78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musher DM, Logan N, Hamill RJ, et al. Nitazoxanide for the treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:421-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musher DM, Logan N, Bressler AM, et al. Nitazoxanide versus vancomycin in Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized, double-blind study. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:e41-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson RL, Kelsey P, Leeman H, et al. Antibiotic treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;9:CD004610
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Larson KC, Belliveau PP, Spooner LM. Tigecycline for the treatment of severe Clostridium difficile infection. Ann Pharmacother 2011;45:1005-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Herte RI, Baban TA, Kanj SS. Recurrent refractory Clostridium difficile colitis treated successfully with rifaximin and tigecycline: a case report and review of the literature. Scand J Infect Dis 2012;44:228-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babakhani F, Bouillaut L, Gomez A, et al. Fidaxomicin inhibits spore production in Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55(Suppl 2):S162-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cornely OA, Miller MA, Louie TJ, et al. Treatment of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: fidaxomicin versus vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55(Suppl 2):S154-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lancaster JW, Matthews SJ. Fidaxomicin: the newest addition to the armamentarium against Clostridium difficile infections. Clin Therapeut 2012;34:1-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitman CB, Czosnowski QA. Fidaxomicin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infections. Ann Pharmacother 2012;46:219-28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smeltzer S, Hassoun A. Successful use of fidaxomicin in recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in a child. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013 . [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalaf N, Crews JD, DuPont HL, Koo HL. Clostridium difficile: an emerging pathogen in children. Discovery Medicine 2012;14:105-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogg GA, George RH, Youngs D, et al. Randomized controlled trial of colestipol in antibiotic-associated colitis. Br J Surg 1982;69:137-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunimoto D, Thomson AB. Recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated colitis responding to cholestyramine. Digestion 1986;33:225-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moncino MD, Falletta JM. Multiple relapses of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a cancer patient. Successful control with long-term cholestyramine therapy. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1992;14:361-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pillai A, Nelson R. Probiotics for treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated colitis in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;1:CD004611
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pruksananonda P, Powell KR. Multiple relapses of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea responding to an extended course of cholestyramine. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989;8:175-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinkson PL, Dinardo C, DeCiero D, et al. Tolevamer, an anionic polymer, neutralizes toxins produced by the BI/027 strains of Clostridium difficile. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:2190-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedge DD, Strain JD, Heins JR, et al. New advances in the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Ther Clin Risk Manag 2008;4:949-64
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Williams NT. Probiotics. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2010;67:449-58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castagliuolo I, Riegler MF, Valenick L, et al. Saccharomyces boulardii protease inhibits the effects of Clostridium difficile toxins A and B in human colonic mucosa. Infect Immun 1999;67:302-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston BC, Ma SS, Goldenberg JZ, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2012;157:878-88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston BC, Supina AL, Ospina M, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of pediatric antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;2:CD004827
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnston BC, Supina AL, Vohra S. Probiotics for pediatric antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. CMAJ 2006;175:377-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szajewska H, Ruszczynski M, Radzikowski A. Probiotics in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Pediatr 2006;149:367-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correa NB, Peret Filho LA, Penna FJ, et al. A randomized formula controlled trial of Bifidobacterium lactis and Streptococcus thermophilus for prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in infants. J Clin Gastroenterol 2005;39:385-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawrelak JA, Whitten DL, Myers SP. Is Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG effective in preventing the onset of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea: a systematic review. Digestion 2005;72:51-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Souza AL, Rajkumar C, Cooke J, et al. Probiotics in prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhoea: meta-analysis. BMJ 2002;324:1361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston BC, Goldenberg JZ, Vandvik PO, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of pediatric antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;11:CD004827
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dendukuri N, Costa V, McGregor M, et al. Probiotic therapy for the prevention and treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review. CMAJ 2005;173:167-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV. Meta-analysis of probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea and the treatment of Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:812-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segarra-Newnham M. Probiotics for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: focus on Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Saccharomyces boulardii. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1212-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tung JM, Dolovich LR, Lee CH. Prevention of Clostridium difficile infection with Saccharomyces boulardii: a systematic review. Can J Gastroenterol 2009;23:817-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ooi CY, Dilley AV, Day AS. Saccharomyces boulardii in a child with recurrent Clostridium difficile. Pediatr Int 2009;51:156-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singhi SC, Baranwal A. Probiotic use in the critically ill. Ind J Pediatr 2008;75:621-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle RJ, Robins-Browne RM, Tang ML. Probiotic use in clinical practice: what are the risks? Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:1256-64; quiz 446-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Land MH, Rouster-Stevens K, Woods CR, et al. Lactobacillus sepsis associated with probiotic therapy. Pediatrics 2005;115:178-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abougergi MS, Broor A, Cui W, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of severe Clostridium difficile colitis: an observational study and review of the literature. J Hosp Med 2010;5:E1-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bauer MP, van Dissel JT, Kuijper EJ. Clostridium difficile: controversies and approaches to management. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2009;22:517-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Horo J, Safdar N. The role of immunoglobulin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2009;13:663-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowy I, Molrine DC, Leav BA, et al. Treatment with monoclonal antibodies against Clostridium difficile toxins. N Engl J Med 2010;362:197-205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakken JS. Fecal bacteriotherapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Anaerobe 2009;15:285-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borody TJ. ‘Flora power' – fecal bacteria cure chronic C. difficile diarrhea. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:3028-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson A, Lund-Tonnesen S, Berstad A, et al. Faecal short-chain fatty acids in patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, before and after faecal enema treatment. Scand J Gastroenterol 1998;33:721-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon SS, Brandt LJ. Treatment of refractory/recurrent C. difficile-associated disease by donated stool transplanted via colonoscopy: a case series of 12 patients. J Clin Gastroenterol 2010;44:562-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin TA, Gessert CE, Aas J, et al. Fecal microbiome transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: report on a case series. Anaerobe 2013;19:22-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jorup-Ronstrom C, Hakanson A, Sandell S, et al. Fecal transplant against relapsing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in 32 patients. Scand J Gastroenterol 2012;47:548-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell G, Kaplan J, Ferraro M, et al. Fecal bacteriotherapy for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection in a child: a proposed treatment protocol. Pediatrics 2010;126:e239-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn SA, Young S, Rubin DT. Colonoscopic fecal microbiota transplant for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in a child. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107:1930-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gough E, Shaikh H, Manges AR. Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53:994-1002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassam Z, Lee CH, Yuan Y, Hunt RH. Fecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2013;108:500-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M, et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2013;368:407-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly CP. Fecal microbiota transplantation – an old therapy comes of age. N Engl J Med 2013;368:474-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali SO, Welch JP, Dring RJ. Early surgical intervention for fulminant pseudomembranous colitis. Am Surg 2008;74:20-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrn JC, Maun DC, Gingold DS, et al. Predictors of mortality after colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Arch Surg 2008;143:150-4; discussion 55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall JF, Berger D. Outcome of colectomy for Clostridium difficile colitis: a plea for early surgical management. Am J Surg 2008;196:384-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamontagne F, Labbe AC, Haeck O, et al. Impact of emergency colectomy on survival of patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain. Ann Surg 2007;245:267-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longo WE, Mazuski JE, Virgo KS, et al. Outcome after colectomy for Clostridium difficile colitis. Dis Colon Rectum 2004;47:1620-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markelov A, Livert D, Kohli H. Predictors of fatal outcome after colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: a 10-year experience. Am Surg 2011;77:977-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perera AD, Akbari RP, Cowher MS, et al. Colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: predictors of mortality. Am Surgeon 2010;76:418-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seder CW, Villalba MR Jr, Robbins J, et al. Early colectomy may be associated with improved survival in fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: an 8-year experience. Am J Surg 2009;197:302-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhangu A, Nepogodiev D, Gupta A, et al; West Midlands Research C. Systematic review and meta-analysis of outcomes following emergency surgery for Clostridium difficile colitis. Br J Surg 2012;99:1501-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noblett SE, Welfare M, Seymour K. The role of surgery in Clostridium difficile colitis. BMJ 2009;338:b1563
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Olivas AD, Umanskiy K, Zuckerbraun B, et al. Avoiding colectomy during surgical management of fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2010;11:299-305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castillo A, Lopez J, Panadero E, et al. Conservative surgical treatment for toxic megacolon due to Clostridium difficile infection in a transplanted pediatric patient. Transpl Infect Dis 2012;14:E34-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cocanour CS. Best strategies in recurrent or persistent Clostridium difficile infection. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2011;12:235-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepin J, Routhier S, Gagnon S, et al. Management and outcomes of a first recurrence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in Quebec, Canada. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:758-64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Surawicz CM. Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97:1769-75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbut F, Richard A, Hamadi K, et al. Epidemiology of recurrences or reinfections of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:2386-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vardakas KZ, Polyzos KA, Patouni K, et al. Treatment failure and recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection following treatment with vancomycin or metronidazole: a systematic review of the evidence. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012;40:1-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang JY, Antonopoulos DA, Kalra A, et al. Decreased diversity of the fecal Microbiome in recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Infect Dis 2008;197:435-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung DY, Kelly CP, Boguniewicz M, et al. Treatment with intravenously administered gamma globulin of chronic relapsing colitis induced by Clostridium difficile toxin. J Pediatr 1991;118(4 Pt 1):633-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warny M, Vaerman JP, Avesani V, et al. Human antibody response to Clostridium difficile toxin A in relation to clinical course of infection. Infect Immun 1994;62:384-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eyre DW, Walker AS, Wyllie D, et al. Predictors of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: implications for initial management. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55(Suppl 2):S77-87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tedesco FJ, Gordon D, Fortson WC. Approach to patients with multiple relapses of antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1985;80:867-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faris B, Blackmore A, Haboubi N. Review of medical and surgical management of Clostridium difficile infection. Tech Coloproctol 2010;14:97-105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson S, Schriever C, Galang M, et al. Interruption of recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea episodes by serial therapy with vancomycin and rifaximin. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:846-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garey KW, Ghantoji SS, Shah DN, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study to assess the ability of rifaximin to prevent recurrent diarrhoea in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011;66:2850-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musher DM, Logan N, Mehendiratta V, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis that fails conventional metronidazole therapy: response to nitazoxanide. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007;59:705-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar