900
Views
9
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Cardiovascular of Respiratory: Review

Pulmonary embolism: current and new treatment options

, &
Pages 1975-1989 | Accepted 16 Jun 2014, Published online: 15 Jul 2014

References

  • Lapner ST, Kearon C. Diagnosis and management of pulmonary embolism. Br Med J 2013;346:f757
  • Goldhaber SZ. Venous thromboembolism: epidemiology and magnitude of the problem. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2012;25:235-42
  • Muñoz FJ, Mismetti P, Poggio R, et al. Clinical outcome of patients with upper-extremity deep vein thrombosis: results from the RIETE Registry. Chest 2008;133:143-8
  • Hall D. Perioperative pulmonary embolism: detection, treatment, and outcomes. Am J Ther 2013;20:67-72
  • Tapson VF. Acute pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1037-52
  • den Exter PL, van Es J, Erkens PM, et al. Impact of delay in clinical presentation on the diagnostic management and prognosis of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013;187:1369-73
  • Goldhaber SZ, Visani L, De Rosa M. Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER). Lancet 1999;353:1386-9
  • Torbicki A, Perrier A, Konstantinides S, et al. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2008;29:2276-315
  • Kearon C, Akl EA, Comerota AJ, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for VTE disease: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2012;141:e419-4S
  • Franchini M, Mannucci PM. New anticoagulants for treatment of venous thromboembolism. Eur J Intern Med 2012;23:692-5
  • Huisman MV, Klok FA. How I diagnose acute pulmonary embolism. Blood 2013;121:4443-8
  • Tilyou S. PIOPED study compares lung scans and pulmonary arteriography. J Nucl Med 1989;30:279-80
  • Wells PS, Anderson DR, Rodger M, et al. Derivation of a simple clinical model to categorize patients' probability of pulmonary embolism: increasing the model's utility with the SimpliRED D-dimer. Thromb Haemost 2000;83:416-20
  • Wicki J, Perneger TV, Junod AF, et al. Assessing clinical probability of pulmonary embolism in the emergency ward: a simple score. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:92-7
  • Klok FA, Mos IC, Nijkeuter M, et al. Simplification of the revised Geneva score for assessing clinical probability of pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:2131-6
  • Miniati M, Bottai M, Monti S, et al. Simple and accurate prediction of the clinical probability of pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:290-4
  • Kline JA, Mitchell AM, Kabrhel C, et al. Clinical criteria to prevent unnecessary diagnostic testing in emergency department patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2004;2:1247-55
  • Le Gal G, Righini M, Roy PM, et al. Prediction of pulmonary embolism in the emergency department: the revised Geneva score. Ann Intern Med 2006;144:165-71
  • van Belle A, Büller HR, Huisman MV, et al. Effectiveness of managing suspected pulmonary embolism using an algorithm combining clinical probability, D-dimer testing, and computed tomography. JAMA 2006;295:172-9
  • Penaloza A, Verschuren F, Meyer G, et al. Comparison of the unstructured clinician gestalt, the wells score, and the revised Geneva score to estimate pretest probability for suspected pulmonary embolism. Ann Emerg Med 2013;62:117-24
  • Ceriani E, Combescure C, Le Gal G, et al. Clinical prediction rules for pulmonary embolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Thromb Haemost 2010;8:957-70
  • Chagnon I, Bounameaux H, Aujesky D, et al. Comparison of two clinical prediction rules and implicit assessment among patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Am J Med 2002;113:269-75
  • Moores LK, Collen JF, Woods KM, et al. Practical utility of clinical prediction rules for suspected acute pulmonary embolism in a large academic institution. Thromb Res 2004;113:1-6
  • Tsimogianni AM, Rovina N, Porfyridis I, et al. Clinical prediction of pulmonary embolism in respiratory emergencies. Thromb Res 2011;127:411-17
  • Miniati M, Bottai M, Monti S. Comparison of 3 clinical models for predicting the probability of pulmonary embolism. Medicine (Baltimore) 2005;84:107-14
  • Calisir C, Yavas US, Ozkan IR, et al. Performance of the Wells and Revised Geneva scores for predicting pulmonary embolism. Eur J Emerg Med 2009;16:49-52
  • Arslan ED, Yesilaras SA, Kavalci C, et al. Prediction of pretest probability scoring systems in pulmonary embolism: Wells, Kline and Geneva. Int J Clin Med 2012;3:731-5
  • Righini M, Bounameaux H. External validation and comparison of recently described prediction rules for suspected pulmonary embolism. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2004;10:345-9
  • Miniati M, Pistolesi M. Assessing the clinical probability of pulmonary embolism. Q J Nucl Med 2001;45:287-93
  • Sharif-Kashani B, Bikdeli B, Ehteshami-Afshar S, et al. Wells' prediction rules for pulmonary embolism: valid in all clinical subgroups? Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2012;23:614-18
  • Posadas-Martinez ML, Vazquez FJ, Giunta DH, et al. Performance of the Wells score in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism during hospitalization: a delayed-type cross sectional study in a community hospital. Thromb Res 2014;133:177-81
  • Miniati M, Monti S, Bottai M. A structured clinical model for predicting the probability of pulmonary embolism. Am J Med 2003;114:173-9
  • Wolf SJ, McCubbin TR, Feldhaus KM, et al. Prospective validation of Wells criteria in the evaluation of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Ann Emerg Med 2004;44:503-10
  • Wells PS, Anderson DR, Rodger M, et al. Excluding pulmonary embolism at the bedside without diagnostic imaging: management of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism presenting to the emergency department by using a simple clinical model and D-dimer. Ann Intern Med 2001;135:98-107
  • Yap KS, Kalff V, Turlakow A, et al. A prospective reassessment of the utility of the Wells score in identifying pulmonary embolism. Med J Aust 2007;187:333-6
  • Righini M, Aujesky D, Roy PM, et al. Clinical usefulness of D-dimer depending on clinical probability and cutoff value in outpatients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:2483-7
  • Moores LK, Jackson WL Jr, Shorr AF, et al. Meta-analysis: outcomes in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism managed with computed tomographic pulmonary angiography. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:866-74
  • Righini M, Le Gal G, Aujesky D, et al. Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism by multidetector CT alone or combined with venous ultrasonography of the leg: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2008;371:1343-52
  • Ghuysen A, Ghaye B, Willems V, et al. Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography and prognostic significance in patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Thorax 2005;60:956-61
  • Stein PD, Fowler SE, Goodman LR, et al. Multidetector computed tomography for acute pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2317-27
  • Schembri GP, Miller AE, Smart R. Radiation dosimetry and safety issues in the investigation of pulmonary embolism. Semin Nucl Med 2010;40:442-54
  • Miniati M, Pistolesi M, Marini C, et al. Value of perfusion lung scan in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: results of the Prospective Investigative Study of Acute Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis (PISA-PED). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:1387-93
  • Astani SA, Davis LC, Harkness BA, et al. Detection of pulmonary embolism during pregnancy: comparing radiation doses of CTPA and pulmonary scintigraphy. Nucl Med Commun 2014;45:704-11
  • Anderson DR, Kahn SR, Rodger MA, et al. Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography vs ventilation-perfusion lung scanning in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007;298:2743-53
  • Gleeson FV, Turner S, Scarsbrook AF. Improving the diagnostic performance of lung scintigraphy in suspected pulmonary embolic disease. Clin Radiol 2006;61:1010-15
  • Hull RD, Hirsh J, Carter CJ, et al. Pulmonary angiography, ventilation lung scanning, and venography for clinically suspected pulmonary embolism with abnormal perfusion lung scan. Ann Intern Med 1983;98:891-9
  • Jiménez D, Aujesky D, Díaz G, et al. Prognostic significance of deep vein thrombosis in patients presenting with acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010;181:983-91
  • Kasper W, Konstantinides S, Geibel A, et al. Management strategies and determinants of outcome in acute major pulmonary embolism: results of a multicenter registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30:1165-71
  • Torbicki A, Galie N, Covezzoli A, et al. Right heart thrombi in pulmonary embolism: results from the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:2245-51
  • Kucher N, Rossi E, De Rosa M, et al. Massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2006;113:577-82
  • Aujesky D, Obrosky DS, Stone RA, et al. Derivation and validation of a prognostic model for pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;172:1041-6
  • Jiménez D, Aujesky D, Moores L, et al. Simplification of the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index for prognostication in patients with acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med 2010;170:1383-9
  • Donze J, Le Gal G, Fine MJ, et al. Prospective validation of the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index. A clinical prognostic model for pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost 2008;100:943-8
  • Righini M, Roy PM, Meyer G, et al. The Simplified Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI): validation of a clinical prognostic model for pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2011;9:2115-17
  • Aujesky D, Roy PM, Verschuren F, et al. Outpatient versus inpatient treatment for patients with acute pulmonary embolism: an international, open-label, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2011;378:41-8
  • Burns SK, Haramati LB. Diagnostic imaging and risk stratification of patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Cardiol Rev 2012;20:15-24
  • Becattini C, Vedovati MC, Agnelli G. Prognostic value of troponins in acute pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis. Circulation 2007;116:427-33
  • Klok FA, Mos IC, Huisman MV. Brain-type natriuretic peptide levels in the prediction of adverse outcome in patients with pulmonary embolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:425-30
  • Konstantinides S, Meyer G, Danays T, et al. Pulmonary Embolism Thrombolysis Study: an investigator-initiated, investigator-sponsored trial. American College of Cardiology 2013 62nd Annual Scientific Session. San Francisco, USA, 9–11 March 2013; Oral presentation 304-15
  • Wan S, Quinlan DJ, Agnelli G, et al. Thrombolysis compared with heparin for the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis of the randomized controlled trials. Circulation 2004;110:744-9
  • Tapson VF. Thrombolytic therapy for acute pulmonary embolism. Semin Thromb Hemost 2013;39:452-8
  • Meneveau N, Seronde MF, Blonde MC, et al. Management of unsuccessful thrombolysis in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Chest 2006;129:1043-50
  • Pirmohamed M. Warfarin: almost 60 years old and still causing problems. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2006;62:509-11
  • Scaglione F. New oral anticoagulants: comparative pharmacology with vitamin K antagonists. Clin Pharmacokinet 2013;52:69-82
  • Willey VJ, Bullano MF, Hauch O, et al. Management patterns and outcomes of patients with venous thromboembolism in the usual community practice setting. Clin Ther 2004;26:1149-59
  • The EINSTEIN–PE Investigators. Oral rivaroxaban for the treatment of symptomatic pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2012;366:1287-97
  • Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2009;361:2342-52
  • Oake N, Fergusson DA, Forster AJ, et al. Frequency of adverse events in patients with poor anticoagulation: a meta-analysis. CMAJ 2007;176:1589-94
  • Poli D, Antonucci E, Testa S, et al. Bleeding risk in very old patients on vitamin K antagonist treatment: results of a prospective collaborative study on elderly patients followed by Italian Centres for Anticoagulation. Circulation 2011;124:824-9
  • Hamby L, Weeks WB, Malikowski C. Complications of warfarin therapy: causes, costs, and the role of the anticoagulation clinic. Eff Clin Pract 2000;3:179-84
  • Bayer Pharma AG. Xarelto (rivaroxaban) Summary of Product Characteristics. 2013. Available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Product_Information/human/000944/WC500057108.pdf [Last accessed 16 May 2014]
  • Harder S, Graff J. Novel oral anticoagulants: clinical pharmacology, indications and practical considerations. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2013;69:1617-33
  • Bristol-Myers Squibb, Pfizer EEIG. Eliquis (apixaban) Summary of Product Characteristics. 2013. Available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Product_Information/human/002148/WC500107728.pdf [Last accessed 16 May 2014]
  • Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH. Pradaxa (dabigatran etexilate) Summary of Product Characteristics. 2014. Available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Product_Information/human/000829/WC500041059.pdf [Last accessed 16 May 2014]
  • Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, et al. Oral apixaban for the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2013;369:799-808
  • The Hokusai-VTE Investigators. Edoxaban versus warfarin for the treatment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2013;369:1406-15
  • Schulman S, Kakkar AK, Goldhaber SZ, et al. Treatment of acute venous thromboembolism with dabigatran or warfarin and pooled analysis. Circulation 2014;129:764-72
  • The EINSTEIN Investigators. Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2499-510
  • Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, et al. Apixaban for extended treatment of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2013;368:699-708
  • Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, et al. Extended use of dabigatran, warfarin, or placebo in venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2013;368:709-18
  • Rivaroxaban for treating pulmonary embolism and preventing recurrent venous thromboembolism; NICE technology appraisal guidance 287. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2013. Available at: http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/14192/64274/64274.pdf [Last accessed 20 May 2014]
  • Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc. Pradaxa (dabigatran etexilate) Prescribing Information. 2014. Available at: http://bidocs.boehringer-ingelheim.com/BIWebAccess/ViewServlet.ser?docBase=renetnt&folderPath=/Prescribing%20Information/PIs/Pradaxa/Pradaxa.pdf [Last accessed 16 May 2014]
  • Kaatz S, Crowther M. Reversal of target-specific oral anticoagulants. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2013;36:195-202
  • Siegal DM, Crowther MA. Acute management of bleeding in patients on novel oral anticoagulants. Eur Heart J 2013;34:489-98
  • Eerenberg ES, Kamphuisen PW, Sijpkens MK, et al. Reversal of rivaroxaban and dabigatran by prothrombin complex concentrate: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study in healthy subjects. Circulation 2011;124:1573-9
  • Galan AM, Arellano-Rodrigo E, Sanz V, et al. Effects of rivaroxaban and dabigatran on hemostasis and reversion of their antithrombotic effects by different coagulation factors: evidence raised from a clinical study in healthy volunteers. J Thromb Haemost 2013;11(Suppl 2):1–1322. Abstract PA 3. 10-6
  • Levi M, Moore T, Castillejos C, et al. Effects of three-factor and four-factor prothrombin complex concentrates on the pharmacodynamics of rivaroxaban. J Thromb Haemost 2013;11:167: Abstract OC 36.5
  • Brighton TA, Eikelboom JW, Mann K, et al. Low-dose aspirin for preventing recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1979-87
  • Becattini C, Agnelli G, Schenone A, et al. Aspirin for preventing the recurrence of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2012;366:1959-67
  • Warkentin TE. Aspirin for dual prevention of venous and arterial thrombosis. N Engl J Med 2012;367:2039-41
  • Desai SR. Unsuspected pulmonary embolism on CT scanning: yet another headache for clinicians? Thorax 2007;62:470-2
  • Abdel-Razeq HN, Mansour AH, Ismael YM. Incidental pulmonary embolism in cancer patients: clinical characteristics and outcome – a comprehensive cancer center experience. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2011;7:153-8
  • Goodman LR. Small pulmonary emboli: what do we know? Radiology 2005;234:654-8
  • Stein PD, Goodman LR, Hull RD, et al. Diagnosis and management of isolated subsegmental pulmonary embolism: review and assessment of the options. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2012;18:20-6
  • Le Gal G, Righini M, Parent F, et al. Diagnosis and management of subsegmental pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2006;4:724-31
  • den Exter PL, van Es J, Klok FA, et al. Risk profile and clinical outcome of symptomatic subsegmental acute pulmonary embolism. Blood 2013;122:1144-9
  • Douketis JD, Spyropoulos AC, Spencer FA, et al. Perioperative management of antithrombotic therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (9th Edition). Chest 2012;141:e326-50S
  • Spyropoulos AC, Douketis JD. How I treat anticoagulated patients undergoing an elective procedure or surgery. Blood 2012;120:2954-62
  • Dunn AS, Spyropoulos AC, Turpie AGG. Bridging therapy in patients on long-term oral anticoagulants who require surgery: the Prospective Peri-operative Enoxaparin Cohort Trial (PROSPECT). J Thromb Haemost 2007;5:2211-18
  • Baron TH, Kamath PS, McBane RD. Management of antithrombotic therapy in patients undergoing invasive procedures. N Engl J Med 2013;368:2113-24
  • Clark SL, Belfort MA, Dildy GA, et al. Maternal death in the 21st century: causes, prevention, and relationship to cesarean delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008;199:36.e1-5
  • Kayem G, Kurinczuk J, Lewis G, et al. Risk factors for progression from severe maternal morbidity to death: a national cohort study. PLoS One 2011;6:e29077
  • Kline JA, Williams GW, Hernandez-Nino J. D-dimer concentrations in normal pregnancy: new diagnostic thresholds are needed. Clin Chem 2005;51:825-9
  • Ridge CA, McDermott S, Freyne BJ, et al. Pulmonary embolism in pregnancy: comparison of pulmonary CT angiography and lung scintigraphy. Am J Roentgenol 2009;193:1223-7
  • Cahill AG, Stout MJ, Macones GA, et al. Diagnosing pulmonary embolism in pregnancy using computed-tomographic angiography or ventilation-perfusion. Obstet Gynecol 2009;114:124-9
  • Wilbur J, Shian B. Diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Am Fam Physician 2012;86:913-19
  • Wainwright H, Beighton P. Warfarin embryopathy: fetal manifestations. Virchows Arch 2010;457:735-9
  • Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2012;141:e691-736S
  • Greer I, Hunt BJ. Low molecular weight heparin in pregnancy: current issues. Br J Haematol 2005;128:593-601
  • Kominiarek MA, Angelopoulos SM, Shapiro NL, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin in pregnancy: peripartum bleeding complications. J Perinatol 2007;27:329-34
  • Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Rowlingson JC, et al. Regional anesthesia in the patient receiving antithrombotic or thrombolytic therapy: American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine Evidence-Based Guidelines (Third Edition). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:64-101
  • te Raa GD, Ribbert LS, Snijder RJ, et al. Treatment options in massive pulmonary embolism during pregnancy; a case-report and review of literature. Thromb Res 2009;124:1-5
  • Letai A, Kuter DJ. Cancer, coagulation, and anticoagulation. Oncologist 1999;4:443-9
  • Agnelli G, Verso M. Management of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. J Thromb Haemost 2011;9(Suppl 1):316-24
  • Mandala M, Falanga A, Roila F. Management of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: ESMO clinical recommendations. Ann Oncol 2009;20(Suppl 4):182-4
  • Knowlson L, Bacchu S, Paneesha S, et al. Elevated D-dimers are also a marker of underlying malignancy and increased mortality in the absence of venous thromboembolism. J Clin Pathol 2010;63:818-22
  • Lee AY, Levine MN, Baker RI, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin versus a coumarin for the prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. N Engl J Med 2003;349:146-53
  • Meyer G, Marjanovic Z, Valcke J, et al. Comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin and warfarin for the secondary prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: a randomized controlled study. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1729-35
  • Hull RD, Pineo GF, Brant RF, et al. Long-term low-molecular-weight heparin versus usual care in proximal-vein thrombosis patients with cancer. Am J Med 2006;119:1062-72
  • Kakkar AK, Levine MN, Kadziola Z, et al. Low molecular weight heparin, therapy with dalteparin, and survival in advanced cancer: the Fragmin Advanced Malignancy OUtcome Study (FAMOUS). J Clin Oncol 2004;22:1944-8
  • Farge D, Debourdeau P, Beckers M, et al. International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment and prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. J Thromb Haemost 2013;11:56-70
  • den Exter PL, Hooijer J, Dekkers OM, et al. Risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism and mortality in patients with cancer incidentally diagnosed with pulmonary embolism: a comparison with symptomatic patients. J Clin Oncol 2011;29:2405-9
  • Konstantinides S, Goldhaber SZ. Pulmonary embolism: risk assessment and management. Eur Heart J 2012;33:3014-22

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.