42
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Pharmacological treatment of septic shock

, &
Pages 601-622 | Published online: 25 Feb 2005

Bibliography

  • WHEELER AP, BERNARD GR: Treating patients with severe sepsis. N Engl. J. Med. (1999) 340:207–214.
  • OPAL SM, CROSS AS: Clinical trials for severe sepsis. Infect. Dis. Olin. North Am. (1999) 13(2):285–297.
  • RANGEL-FRAUSTO MS: The epidemiology of bacterial sepsis. Infect. Dis. Olin. North Am. (1999) 13(2):299–311.
  • RANGEL-FRAUSTO MS, PITTET D, COSTIGAN M, HWANG T, DAVIS CS, WENZEL RP: The natural history of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS): a prospective study. JAMA (1995) 273:117–123.
  • HARDAWAY RM: A review of septic shock. Am. Sorg. (2000) 66:22–29.
  • PARILLO JE (moderator): Septic shock in humans: advances in the understanding of pathogenesis, cardiovascular dysfunction and therapy. Ann. Intern. Merl. (1990) 113:227–242.
  • NATANSON C, DANNER RL, REILLY JM et al.: Antibiotics versus cardiovascular support in a canine model of human septic shock. Am. J. Physiol. (1990) 259:H1440–H1447.
  • SHENEP JL, MORGAN KA: Kinetics of endotoxin release during, antibiotic therapy for experimental Gram-negative bacterial sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. (1984) 150:380–388.
  • LYNN WA, COHEN J: Adjunctive therapy for septic shock: A review of experimental approaches. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1995) 20:143
  • HELLMAN J, WARREN HS: Anti-endotoxin strategies. Infect. Dis. North Am. (1999) 13:371–386.
  • VUORIO R, VAARA M: The lipid A biosynthesis mutation of lpxA2 of Escherichia coli results in drastic antibi-otic supersusceptibility. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1992) 36:826–829.
  • RAETZ CR. Bacterial endotoxins: extraordinary lipids that activate eukaryotic signal transduction. J. Bacteriol. (1993) 175:5745–5753.
  • KELLY TM, STACHULA SA, RAETZ CRH, ANDERSON MS:The firA gene of Escherichia coli encodes UDP-3-0- (R-3-hydroxymyristoy1)-glucosamine-N-acyltransferase. J. Biol. Chem. (1993) 268:19866–19874.
  • ONISHI HR, PELAK BA, GERCKENS LS et al.: Antibacterialagents that inhibit lipid A biosynthesis. Science (1996) 274:980–982.
  • GOLDMAN R, KOHLBRENNER W, LARETY P et al.: Antibacterial agents specifically inhibiting lipopoly-saccharide synthesis. Nature (1987) 329:162–164.
  • BONE RC, BALK RA, FEIN AM et al.: A second largecontrolled clinical trial of E5, a monoclonal antibody to endotoxin: results of a prospective, multicenter, randomised, controlled trial. Grit. Care Med. (1995) 23:994–1006.
  • ZEIGLER EJ, FISHER JRCJ, SPRUNG CL eta].: Treatment of Gram-negative bacteremia in septic shock with HA-1A human monoclonal antibody against endotoxin. N Engl. J. Med. (1991) 324:429–438.
  • CROSS AS, OPAL SM: Therapeutic intervention in sepsis with antibody to endotoxin: is there a future? J. Endotoxin Res. (1994) 1:57–69.
  • RIETSCHEL ET, BRADE H, HOLST 0 et al.: Bacterial endotoxin: chemical composition, biological recogni-tion, host response and immunological detoxifica-tion. Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. (1996) 216:39–81.
  • TONOLI M, DAVIES KA, NORSWORTHY PJ, COHEN J, WALPORT MJ: The antilipid A antibody HA-1A binds to rough Gram-negative bacteria, fixes complement and facilitates binding to erythrocyte CR1 (CD35). Exp. Immunol. (1993) 92:232–238.
  • ZIEGER EJ, EICHER CJ JR. SPRUNG CL et al: Treatment of Gram-negative bacteremia and septic shock with HA-1A human monoclonal antibody against endotoxin: a randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl. J. Med. (1991) 324:429–436.
  • DI PADOVA FE, BARCLAY R, BRADE H et al: SDZ219-800: a chimeric broadly cross-reactive and cross-neutralising anticore LPS antibody. Circ. Shock (1993) 1 (Suppl.):47.
  • STRUTZ F, HELLER G, KRASEMANN K, KRONE B, MULLER GA: Relationship of antibodies to endotoxin core to mortality in medical patients with sepsis syndrome. Intensive Care Med. (1999) 25(5):435–444.
  • BHATTERCHARJEE AK, OPAL SM, PALARDY JE et al: Affinity purified E. coil' J5 LPS-specific IgG protects neutropenic rats against Gram-negative sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. (1994) 170: 622–629.
  • BHATTERCHARJEE AK, OPAL SM, TAYLOR R et al.: A non-covalent complex vaccine prepared with detoxi-fied E. coli J5 LPS and Neisseria meningitidis group B outer membrane protein produces protective antibodies against Gram-negative bacteria. J. Infect. Dis. (1996) 173:1157–1162.
  • DONTA ST, PEDUZZI P, CROSS AS et al.: Immunoprophy-laxis against Klebsiella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. J. Infect. Dis. (1996) 174:537–543.
  • WURFEL MM, HAILMAN E, WRIGHT SD: Soluble CD14 acts as a shuttle in the neutralisation of lipopolysac-charide (LPS) by LPS-binding protein and reconsti-tuted high density lipoprotein. J. Exp. Med. (1995) 181:1743–1754.
  • PAJKRT D, DORAN JE, COSTER F et al.: Anti-inflammatory effects of reconstituted high-density lipoprotein during human endotoxemia. J. Exp. Med. (1996) 184:1601–1608.
  • LERCH PG, FORTSH V, HOLDER G et al.: Production and characterisation of a reconstituted high density lipoprotein (rHDL) for therapeutic application. Vox Sang. (1996) 71:155–164.
  • ZHANG GH, MANN DM, TSAI CM: Neutralisation of endotoxin in vitro and in vivo by a human lactoferrin-derived peptide. Infect. Immun. (1999) 67:1353–1358.
  • LEE WJ, FARMER JL, HILTY M, KIM YB: The protective effects of lactoferrin feeding against endotoxin lethal shock in germfree piglets. Infect. Immun. (1998) 66:1421–1426.
  • OPAL SM, PALARDY JE, MARRA MN et al: Relative concentrations of endotoxin-binding proteins in body fluids during infection. Lancet (1994) 344:429–431.
  • LAMPING N, DETTMER R, SCHRODER NW et al.: LPS-binding protein protects mice from septic shock caused by LPS or Gram-negative bacteria. J. Clin. Invest. (1998) 101:2056–2071.
  • LIN Y, LEACH WJ, AMMONS WS: Synergistic effect of a recombinant N-terminal fragment of bacteri-cidal/permeability-increasing protein and cefaman-dole in treatment of rabbit Gram-negative sepsis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40(1):65–69.
  • GIROIR B, CARROLL S, SCANNON P: Phase I/II trial of rBPI2 in children with severe meningococcemia [abstract no. 414]. Infectious Disease Society of America Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA (1997).
  • HIRATA M, SHIMOMURA Y, YOSHIDA M et al: Charac-terisation of a rabbit cationic protein (CAP18) with lipopolysaccharide-inhibitory activity. Infect. Immun. (1994) 62:1421–1426.
  • SALADINO R, GARCOA C, THOMPSON C et al.: Efficacy of a, recombinant endotoxin neutralising protein in rabbits with Escherichia coli sepsis. Circ. Shock (1994) 42:104–110.
  • DE HAAS CJ, VAN DER ZEE R, BENAISSA-TROUW B et al: Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding synthetic peptides derived from serum amyloid P component neutralises LPS. Infect. Immun. (1999) 6:2790–2796.
  • SCHIMKE J, MATHISON J, MORGIEWICZ J, ULEVITCH RJ: AntiCD14 mAb treatment provides therapeutic benefit after in vivo exposure to endotoxin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95 (23):13875–13880.
  • HANASAWA L, TANI T, KODAMA M: New approach to endotoxic and septic shock by means of polymyxin B immobilized fibre. Surg. GynecoL Obstet. (1989) 168:323–331.
  • AOKI H, KODAMA M, TANI T et al.: Treatment of sepsisby extracorporeal elimination of endotoxin using polymyxin B-immobilized fibre. Am. J. Surg. (1994) 167:412–417.
  • SATO T, ORLOWSKI JP, ZBOROWSKI M: Experimental study of extracorporeal perfusion for septic shock. ASAIO J (1993) 39:M790–M793.
  • LYNN WA, COLENBOCK DT: Lipopolysaccharide antagonists. Immunol. Today (1992) 13:271–276.
  • CHRIST WJ, OSAMU A, ROBIDOUX ALC et al: E5531 a pure endotoxin antagonist of high potency. Science (1995) 268:80–83.
  • KAWATA T, BRISTOL JR, ROSE JR et al.: Specific lipid A analogue which exhibits exclusive antagonism of endotoxin. In: Novel Therapeutic Strategies in the Treatment of Sepsis. Morrison D, Ryan J (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, USA (1996):171–186.
  • ASAI Y, NOZU Y, IKEUCHI T, NARAZAKI R, IWAMOTO K, WATANABE S: The effect of the lipid A analogue, E5531 on fever induced by endotoxin from Escherichia Pharm. Bull. (1999) 22(4):432–434.
  • WASAN KM, STROBEL FW, PARROTT SC et al.: Lipopro-tein distribution of a novel endotoxin antagonist, E5531, in plasma from human subjects with various lipid levels. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1999) 43(102565–2564.
  • CAMENISCH TD, KOLLER BH, EARPS HS, MATSUSHIMA GK: A novel receptor tyrosine kinase, Mer, inhibits TNF-a production and lipopolysaccharide-induce endotoxic shock. J. Immunol. (1999) 162(6):3498–3503.
  • LIU SF, YE X, MALIK AB: Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate prevents I-kappaB degradation and reduces microvas-cular injury induced by lip op olys accharide in multiple organs. Mol. Pharmacol. (1999) 55 (4):658–667.
  • BRIGHTBILL HD, LIBRATY DH, KRUTZIK SR et al Host defense mechanisms triggered by microbial through toll-like receptors. Science (1999) 285(5428)732–736.
  • KAWAI T, ADACHI O, OGAWA T, TAKEDA K, AKIRA S: Unresponsiveness of MyD88-deficient mice to endotoxin. Immunity (1999) 11(1):115–122.
  • KOPP EB, MEDZHITOV R: The Toll-receptor family andcontrol of innate immunity. Curr. Opin. Immunol. (1999) 11(1):13–18.
  • CARTER AB, MONICK MM, HUNNINGHAKE GW: Both Erkand p38 kinases are necessary for cytokine gene transcription. Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol. (1999) 20 (4):751–758.
  • NICK-JA, AVDI NJ, GERWINS P, JOHNSON GL WORTHENGS: Activation of p38 mitogen activated protein kinase in human neutrophils by lipopolysaccharide. J. Immunol. (1996) 156(12):4867–4875.
  • VACCA A, FELLI MP, FARINA AR et al: Glucocorticoidreceptor-mediated suppression of the interleukin-2 gene expression through impairment of the co-operativity between nuclear factor of activated T-cells and AP-1 enhancer elements. J. Exp. Med. (1992) 175:637–646.
  • BOLLARET PE, CHARPENTIER C, LEVY B, DEBOUVERIE M,AUDIBERT G, LARCAN A: Reversal of late septic shock with supraphysiologic doses of hydrocortisone. Intensive Care Med. (1998) 26:645–650.
  • BRIEGEL J, FORST H, HALLER Met al.: Stress doses ofhydrocortisone reverse hyperdynamic septic shock: a prospective, randomised, double-blind, single-centre study. Circ. Care Med. (1999) 27(4):723–732.
  • HASKO G, KUHEL DG, NEMETH ZH et al. Inosine inhibits, inflammatory cytokine production by a posttranscriptional mechanism and protects against endotoxin-induced shock. J. Immunol. (2000) 164(2):1013–1019.
  • FELDMAN M, BONDESON J, BRENNAN FM, FOXWELL BM,MAINI RN: The rationale for the current boom in antiTNFa treatment. Is there an effective means to define therapeutic targets for drugs that provide all the benefits of antiTNFa and minimise hazards? Ann. Rheum. Dis. (1999) 58\(Suppl. 0:127–131.
  • NEUNER P, KLOSNER G, SCHAUER E et al: Pentoxifyllinein vivo downregulates of IL-1B, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF a by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Immunology (1994) 83:262.
  • KRAKAUER T, STILES BG: Pentoxifylline inhibitssuperantigen-induced toxic shock and cytokine release. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. (1999) 6:594–598.
  • ZHANG H, SPAPEN H, BENLABED M et al.: Pentoxifyllineimproves the tissue oxygen extraction capabilities during endotoxic shock. Shock (1994) 2:90–97.
  • DUNZENDORFER S, SCHRATZBERGER P, REINISCH N, KAHLER CM, WIEDERMANN CJ: Pentoxifylline differen-tially regulates migration and respiratory burst activity of the neutrophil. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1997) 832:330–340.
  • ARRIETA O, ORTIZ-REYES A, REMBAO D, CALVILLO M,RIVERA E, SOTELO J: Protective effect of pentoxifylline plus thalidomide against septic shock in mice. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. (1999) 80:11–16.
  • ZABEL P, SCHONHARTING MM, WOLTER DT et al: Pentoxifylline in endotoxaemia. Lancet (1989) 2:1474–1477.
  • STAUDINGER T, PRESTERL E, GRANINGER W et al: Influence of pentoxifylline on cytokine levels and inflammatory parameters in septic shock. Intensive Care Med. (1996) 22:888–893.
  • SCHMIDT H, RUSH B, SIMONNIAN G et al.: Thalidomideinhibits TNF response and increases survival following endotoxin injection in rats. J. Surg. Res. (1996) 63:143–146.
  • PARMELY MJ, ZHOU WW, EDWARDS CK III, BORCHERDING DR, SILVERSTEIN R, MORRISON DC: Adenosine and a related carbocyclic nucleoside analogue selectively inhibit tumour necrosis factor-a production and protect mice against endotoxin challenge. J. Immunol. (1993) 151:389–396.
  • LANDGALE LA, MATER RV, WILSON L, POHLMAN TH, WILLIAMS JG, RICE CL: Liposome-encapsulated haemoglobin inhibits tumour necrosis factor release from rabbit alveolar macrophages by a posttranscrip-tional mechanism. J. Leukoc. Biol. (1992) 52:679–686.
  • CARBARNS NJ, NEALE ML, STARK JM: Protective effect of an oestrogen against endotoxin-induced liver enzyme release. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. (1993) 74:309–315.
  • BEDROSIAN I, SOFIA RD, WOLFF SM, DINARELLO CA: Taurolidine, an analogue of the amino acid taurine, suppresses interleukin-1 and tumour necrosis factor synthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Cytokine (1991) 3:568–575.
  • SAMPAIO EP, SARNO EN, GALILLY R, COHN ZA, KAPLAN G: Thalidomide selectively inhibits tumour necrosis factor-a production by stimulated human monocytes. J. Exp. Med. (1991) 173:699–703.
  • SILVA AT, BAYSTON KF, COHEN J: Prophylactic and therapeutic effects of a monoclonal antibody to tumour necrosis factor-a in experimental Gram-negative shock. J. Infect. Dis. (1990) 162:421–427.
  • EXELY AR, COHEN J, BUURMAN WA et al.: Monoclonal antibody to TNF in severe septic shock [letter]. Lancet (1990) 335:1275–1257.
  • FISHER CJ, OPAL SM, DHAINAUT JF et al.: Influence of an antitumour necrosis factor monoclonal antibody on cytokine levels in patients with sepsis. Crit. Care Merl. (1993) 21:318–327.
  • VINCENT JL, BAKKER J, MAR CAUX G: Administration of antiTNE antibody improves left ventricular function in septic shock patients. Chest (1992) 101:810–815.
  • ABRAHAM E, WUNDERINK R, SILVERMAN H et al.: Efficacy and safety of monoclonal antibody to human tumour necrosis factor a in patients with sepsis syndrome: a randomised controlled, double-blind, multicenter clinical trial. JAMA (1995) 273:934–941.
  • COHEN J, CARLET J: INTERSEPT Study Group. INTERSEPT: an international multicenter, placebo-controlled trial of monoclonal antibody to human tumour necrosis factor-a, in patients with sepsis. Grit. Care Med. (1996) 24:1431–1440.
  • FISHER CJ JR, AGOSTI JM, OPAL SM et al.: Treatment ofseptic shock with the tumour necrosis factor: Fc fusion protein. N Engl. J. Med. (1996) 334:1697–1702.
  • HASKO G, NEMETH ZH, VIZI ES, SALZMAN AL, SZABO C:An agonist of adenosine A3 receptors decreases interleukin-12 and interferon y production and prevents lethality in endotoxemic mice. Eur. J. Pharmacol. (1998) 358(3):261–268.
  • FISHER CJ, SLOTMAN GJ, OPAL SM et al.: Initial evalua-tion of human recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of sepsis syndrome: a randomised, open-label, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Crit. Care Med. (1994) 22:12–21.
  • FISHER CJ, DHAINAUT JF, OPAL SM et al.: Recombinanthuman interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of patients with sepsis syndrome. JAMA (1994) 271: 1836-1843.
  • OPAL SM, FISHER CJ JR, DHAINAUT J-FA et al.: Confirma-tory interleukin-1 receptor antagonist trial in severe sepsis: a Phase III, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Crit. Care Med. (1997) 25:1115–1124.
  • CALANDRA T, ECHTENACHER B, ROY DL et al: Protec-tion from septic shock by neutralisation of macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Nat. Med. (2000) 6(2):164–170.
  • STEINHAUSER ML, HOGABOAM CM, LUKACS NW, STRIETER RM, KUNKEL SL: Multiple roles for IL-12 in a model of acute septic peritonitis. J. Immunol (1999) 162:5437–5443.
  • ZISMAN DA, KUNKEL SL, STREITER RM et al.:AntiInterleukin-12 therapy protects mice in lethal endotoxemia but impairs bacterial clearance in murine Escherichia co/iperitoneal sepsis. Shock (1997) 8:349–356.
  • WANG H, BLOOM O, ZHANG M et al.: 11MG-1 as a latemediator of endotoxin lethality in mice. Science (1999) 285:248–251.
  • O'GRADY NP, TROPEA M, PREAS HL-2nd et al: Detectionof macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1 a and ADP 113 during experimental endotoxemia and human sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. (1999) 179(1): 136–141.
  • KNAPP S, THALHAMMER F, LOCKER GJ et al.: Pronosticvalue of MIP-1 a, TGF 13 2, sELAM-1 and sVCAM-1 in patients with Gram-positive sepsis. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol (1998) 87(2):139–144.
  • WALLEY KR, LUKACS NW, STANDIFORD TJ, STRIETER RM,KUNKEL SL: Elevated levels of macrophage inflamma-tory protein 2 in several murine peritonitis increase neutrophil recruitment and mortality. Infect. Immun. (1997) 65 (9):3847–4851.
  • MATSUKAWA A, HOGABOAM CM, LUKACS NW, LINCOLNPM, STRIETER RM, KUNKEL SL: Endogenous monocyte chemoattractant protiein-1 (MCP-1) protects mice in a model of acute septic peritonitis: cross talk between MCP-1 and leucotriene B4. J. Immunol. (1999) 163(10:6148–6154.
  • G RARD C, BRUYNS C, MARCHANT A et al.: Interleukin-10 reduces the release of tumour necrosis factor and prevents lethality in experimental endotoxemia. J. Exp. Med. (1993) 177:547–550.
  • MUCHAMUEL T, MENON S, PISACANE P, HOWARD MC,COCKAYNE DA: IL-13 protects mice from lipopolysaccharide-induced lethal endotoxemia: correlation with down-modulation of TNF-a, IFN-y and 11-12 production. J. Immunol. (1997) 158:2898–2903.
  • DRMITRI MT, BENIGNI F, MEAZZA C et al: Protectiveeffect of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) in a model of endotoxic shock: action mechanisms and role of CNTF receptor a. J. Inflamm. (1998) 48:47–55.
  • EREHACKER PQ, WAISMAN Y, NATANSON C et al.: Thecardiopulmonary effects of granulocyte colony stimulating factor in a canine model of bacterial peritonitis. J. Appl. Physiol. (1994) 77:2366–2373.
  • QUEZADO ZMN, NATANSON C, HOFFMAN WD et al:Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (GCS-F) treatment at the onset of E. co/i-peritonitis-induced septic shock in canines [abstract]. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1995) 151:A447.
  • WEISS M, GROSS WEEGE W, SCHMEIDER M et al: Enhancement of neutrophil function by in vivo fllgrastim treatment for prophylaxis of sepsis in surgical intensive care patients. J. Crit. Care (1995) 10:21–26.
  • KIRSCHFINK, M: Controlling the complement system in inflammation. Immunopharmacology (1997) 38:51–62.
  • SILVA, Al, COHEN J: Role of interferon-y in experimental Gram-negative sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. (1992) 166:331–335.
  • EVANS, T, CARPENTER A, SILVA A, COHEN J: Differential effects of monoclonal antibodies to tumour necrosis factor a and y interferon on induction of hepatic nitric oxide synthase in experimental Gram-negative sepsis. Infect. Immun. (1992) 60:4133–4139.
  • KIRSCHFINK M: Controlling the complement system in inflammation. Immunopharmacology (1997) 38:51–62.
  • STEVENS JH, O'HANLEY P, SHAPIRO JM et al: Effects of antiC5a antibodies on the adult respiratory distress syndrome in septic primates. J. Gin. Invest. (1986) 77:1812–1816.
  • JANSEN PM, EISELE B, DE JONG IW et al: Effect of Cl inhibitor on inflammatory and physiologic response patterns in primates suffering from lethal septic shock. J. Immunol (1998) 160:475–484.
  • ZHANG H, BENLABED M, SPAPEN H et al: Prostaglandin El increases oxygen extraction capabilities in experi-mental sepsis. J. Surg. Res. (1994) 57:470–479.
  • ABRAHAM E, PARK YC, COVINGTON P et al.: Liposomal prostaglandin El in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a placebo-controlled, randomised, double-blind, multicenter clinical trial. Crit. Care Med. (1996) 24:10–15.
  • SONG SM, LU SM, WANG ZG, LIU JC, GUO SQ, LI Z: Subcellular membrane impairment and application of phospholipase A2 inhibitors in endotoxic shock. Injury (1999) 30(1):9–14.
  • YOKOTA Y, HANASAKI K, ONO T, NAKAZATO H, KOBAYASHI T, ARITA H: Suppression of murine endotoxic shock by sPLA2 inhibitor, indoxam, through group HA sPLA2-independent mechanisms. Biochim. Biophys. Acta (1999) 1438(2):213–222.
  • MARSHALL LA, HALL RH, WINKLER JD et al: 5B203347, a inhibitor of 14 kDa phospholipase A2, alters human neutrophil arachidonic acid release and metabolism and prolongs survival in murine endotoxin shock. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1995) 274:1254–1262.
  • BAEK SH, YUN SS, KWON TK et al. The effects of two new, antagonists of secretory PLA2 on TNF, iNOS and COX-2 expression in activated macrophages. Shock (1999) 12(6):473–478
  • DE CASTRO CM, BUREAU MF, NAHORI MA, DUMAREY CH, VARGAFTING BB, BACHELET M: Modulation by dexamethasone of phospholipase A2 activates in endotoxemic guinea-pigs. J. Appl. Physiol. (1995) 79:1271–1277.
  • BERNARD GR, WHEELER AP, RUSSELL JA et al: Effects of ibuprofen on the physiology and survival of patients with sepsis. N Engl. J. Med. (1997) 336:912–918.
  • JESMOK G, GUNDEL R: Thromboxane, blocked swine as an experimental model of severe intravascular inflam-mation and septic shock. Shock (1995) 4(5):379–383.
  • YU M, TOMASA G: A double-blind, prospective, randomised trial of ketoconazole, a thromboxane synthetase inhibitor, in the prophylaxis of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Crit. Care Med. (1993) 21:1635–1642.
  • LEEMAN M, BOEYNAEMS JM, DEGAUTE JP et al. Administration of dazoxiben, a selective thromboxane synthetase inhibitor in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest (1985) 87:726–730.
  • ZELTSMAN D, QUINN JV, MORES C, SLOTMAN GJ: Pathophysiologic plasma levels of leukotriene C4 in relation to the hemodynamic dysfunction and mediator release of graded bacteremia. Shock (1997) 7:282–287.
  • CAN C, CINAR MG, ULKER S, EVINC A, KOSAY S: Effects of MK886, a leukotriene biosynthesis inhibitor, in rabbit model of endotoxic shock. Eur. J. Pharmacol. (1998) 350:223–228.
  • ALPERT G, BALDWIN G, THOMPSON C et al.: Limulis antilipopolysaccharide factor protects rabbits from meningococcal endotoxin shock. J. Infect. Dis. (1992) 165:494–500.
  • BARSA D, MERLOS M, GIRAL M, FERRANDO R, GARCIA-RAFANELL J, FORN J: Effects of a new platelet-activating factor antagonist, UR-12670, on several endotoxic shock markers in rats. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. (1997) 23:191–199.
  • CLAVIJO LC, CARTER MG, MATHESON PJ et al: Platelet-activating factor and bacteremia-induced pulmonary hypertension. J. Surg. Res. (2000) 88:173–180.
  • FINK MP: Therapeutic options directed against platelet activating factor, eicosanoids and bradykinin in sepsis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1998) 41 (Suppl. A):81–94.
  • WILSON DD, DE GARAVILLA L, KUHN W, TOGO J, BURCH M,, STERANKA LR: D-Arg-[Hyp3-D-Phe7]-bradykinin antagonist reduce mortality in a rat model of endotoxic shock. Circ. Shock (1989) 27:93–101.
  • WHALLEY ET, SOLOMON JA, MODAFFLERI DM, BONHAM KA, CHERONIS JC. CP-0127 a novel potent bradykinin increases survival in rat and rabbit models of endotoxin shock. Agents Actions Suppl. (1992) 38:413–420.
  • MARUO K, AKAIKE T, ONO T, MAEDA H: Involvement of bradykinin generation in intravascular dissemination of Vibro vulnificus and prevention of invasion by a bradykinin antagonist. Infect. Immun. (1998) 66:866–869.
  • FELETOU M, JAMONNEAU I, GERMAIN M et al.: Bradyki-nin B2 receptor involvement in rabbit and murine models of septic shock. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. (1996) 27:500–507.
  • SIEBECK M, SPANNAGL E, SCHORR M et al: Effect of combined B1 and B2 kin receptor blockade in porcine endotoxin shock. Immunopharmacology (1996) 33:81–84.
  • FELETOU M, LONCHAMPT M, ROBINEAU P et al.: Effect of the bradykinin B2 receptor antagonist S 16118 in different in vivo animal model of inflammation. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1995) 273:1078–1084.
  • SAKAI A: Protection against septic shock in mice with SJC13, an azaindolidine derivative that is a cell adhesion molecule inhibitor. In/lam. Res. (1996) 45:448–451.
  • SYMEONIDES S, BLAK RA: Nitric oxide in the pathogenic of sepsis. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. (1999) 13(2)449–463.
  • HOBBS AJ, HIGGS A, MONCADA S: Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase as a potential therapeutic target. Ann. Rev Pharmacol. Toxicol. (1999) 39:191–220.
  • MULDER MF, LAMBALGEN AA, HUISMAN E et al.: Protec-tive role of NO in the regional hemodynamic changes during acute endotoxemia in rats. Am. J. Physiol. (1994) 226:H1558–564.
  • MEYER J, LENTZ CW, STOTHERT JC et al.: Effects of nitric oxide synthesis inhibition in hyperdynamic endotoxemia. Crit. Care Med. (1994) 22:306–312.
  • KIEHL MG, OSTERMANN H, MEYER J, KIENAST J: Nitric oxide synthase inhibition by L-NAME in leukocy-topenic patients with severe septic shock. Intensive Care Med. (1997) 23:561–566 /
  • KILBOURN R: Nitric oxide synthase inhibitors - a mechanism-based treatment of septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 27:857–858.
  • LOCKER GJ, BURGMANN H, STAUDINGER T, KNAPP S, LACZIKA KF, FRASS M: Fatal effects of L-NMMA? Crit. Care Med. (1996) 24:1930.
  • GROVER R, ZACCARDELLI D, COLICE G, GUNTUPALLI K, WATSON D, VINCENT JL: An open-label dose escalation study of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, N(G)-methyl-t-arginine hydrochloride (546C88), in patients with septic shock. Glaxo Wellcome Interna-tional Septic Shock Study Group. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 27 (5):913–922.
  • HUSSEIN Z, BEERAHEE M, GROVER R et al.: Pharmacoki-netics of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor t-NG-methylarginine hydrochoride in patients with septic shock. Glaxo Wellcome International Septic Shock Group. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (1999) 65(0:1–9.
  • KRECIC-SHEPARD ME, SHEPARD DR, MULLET D, APSELOFF G, WEISBRODE SE, GERBER N: Gallium nitrate suppresses the production of nitric oxide and liver damage in a murine model of LPS-induced septic shock. Life ScL (1999) 65(13)1359–1371.
  • STEEGE JC, FORGET PP, BURMAN WA. Oral spermine administration inhibits nitric oxide-mediated intestinal damage and levels of systemic inflammatory mediators in a mouse endotoxin model. Shock (1999) 11:115–119.
  • LEVY B, VALTIER M, DE CHILLOU C, BOLLAERT PE, CANE D, MALLIE JP: Beneficial effects of t-canavanine, a selective inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase, on lactate metabolism and muscle high energy phosphate during endotoxic shock in rats. Shock (1999) 11:98–103.
  • ZANETTI G, HEUMANN D, GERAIN J et al.: Cytokine production after iv. or peritoneal Gram-negative bacterial challenge in mice: comparative protective efficacy of antibodies to tumour necrosis factor-a and to lipopolysaccharide. j Immunol. (1992) 148:1890–1897.
  • GACHOT E, BDOS JP, VEBER B, WOLFF M, R GINER B: Short-term effects of methylene blue on haemody-namics and gas exchange in humans with septic shock. Intensive Care Med. (1995) 21:1027–1031.
  • GROVER R, ZACCARDELLI D, COLICE G, GUNTUPALLI K, WATSON D, VINCENT JL: An open-label dose escalation study of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, NG-methyl-t-arginine hydrochloride (546C88), in patients with septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 27:913–922.
  • ANDRESEN M, DOUGNAC A, D0AZ 0 et al: Use of methylene blue in patients with refractory septic shock: impact on haemodynamics and gas exchange. Crit. Care (1998) 13(4):164–168.
  • WU CC, CHEN SJ, SZABO C, THIEMERMANN C, VANE JR: Aminoguanidine attenuates the delayed circulatory failure and improves survival in rodent models of endotoxic shock. Br. J. Pharmacol. (1 9 9 5) 114(8):1666–1672.
  • WOLFARD A, KASZAKI J, SZABO C, SZALAY L, NAGY S, BOROS M: Prevention of early myocardial depression in hyperdynamic endotoxemia in dogs. Shock (2000) 13(1):46–51.
  • COCHRAN JB, GENOVESE F, OGURA S, TETI G, COOK JA: Effect of nitric oxide donors and nitric oxide synthase inhibitors in neonatal rat endotoxic shock. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1999) 58(4) 687–691.
  • DICKINSON E, TUNCER R, NADLER E, BOYLE P, ALBER S, WATKINS S: NOX, a novel nitric oxide scavenger, reduces bacterial translocation in rats after endotoxin challenge. Am. J. Physic)]. (1999) 277(6 Pt 1):G1281–287.
  • BONE HG, FISCHER SR, SCHENARTS PJ eta].: Continuous infusion of pyridoxalated hemoglobin polyoxyeth-ylene conjugate in hyperdynamic septic sheep. Shock (1998) 10:69–76.
  • REINHART K, SPIES CD, MEIER-HELLMANN A et al.: N-acetylcysteine preserves oxygen consumption and gastric mucosal pH during hyperoxic ventilation. Am. Respir. Grit. Care Med. (1995) 151:773–779.
  • PEAKE SL, MORAN JL, LEPPARD PL: N-acetyl-t-cysteine depresses cardiac performance in patients with septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (1996) 24:1302–1310.
  • SPAPEN H, ZHANG H, DEMANET C, VLEMINCKX W, VINCET JL, HUYGHENS L: Does N-acetyl-t-cysteine influence cytokine response during early human septic shock? Chest (1998) 113: 1616-1624.
  • GALLEY HF, HOWDLE PD, WALKER BE, WEBSTER NR: The effect of iv. anti-oxidants in patients with septic shock. Free Radic. Biol. Merl. (1997) 23:768–774.
  • LAUZURIA P, MARTINEZ-MARTINEZ S, MARAZUELA M et Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate protects mice from lethal shock induced by LPS or TNF-a. Eur. J. Immunol. (1999) 29:1890–1900.
  • MEISNER M, SCHMIDT J, SCHYWALSKY M, TSCHAIKOWSKY K: Influence of pyrrolide dithiocarba-mate on the inflammatory response in macrophages and mouse endotoxin shock. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. (2000) 22(1)83–90.
  • DELLA RAGIONE F, CUCCIOLLA V, BORRIELLO A et al: Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate induces apoptosis by a cytochrome c-dependent mechanism. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (2000) 268(3)942–946.
  • NEMETH ZH, HASKO G, VIZI ES: Pyrrolidine dithiocar-bamate augments IL-10, inhibits TNF-a, MIP 1 a, IL-12 and nitric oxide production and protects from the lethal effect of endotoxin. Shock (1998) 10(1):49–53.
  • ALTAVILLA D, SQUADRITO F, SERRANO M eta].: Inhibi-tion of tumour necrosis factor and reversal of endotoxin-induced shock by U-83836E, a 'second generation' lazaroid in rats. Br J.Pharmacol.(1998) 124:1293–1299.
  • ATAVILLA D, SQUADRITO F, CAMPO GM, SQUADRITO G, ARLOTTA M, URNA G: The lazaroid, U-74389G, inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase activity, reverses vascular failure and protects against endotoxin shock. Eur. J. Pharmacol. (1999) 369:49–55.
  • GONZALEZ PK, ZHUANG J, DICTROW SR et al.: EUK-8, a synthetic superoxide dismutase and catalase mimetic, ameliorates acute lung injury in endotoxemic swine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1995) 275(2):798–806.
  • SCHILLER HJ, REILLY PM, BULKLEY GB: Anti-oxidant therapy. Grit. Care Merl. (1993) 21:S92–102.
  • KONG CW, TSAI K, CHIN JH, CHAN WL, HONG CY: Magnolol attenuates peroxidative damage and improves survival of rats with sepsis. Shock (2000) 13:24–28.
  • VASQUEZ Y, WILLIAMS CH, HARDAWAY RM: Effect of urokinase on disseminated intravascular coagulation. Appl. Physiol. (1998) 85:1421–1428.
  • FOURRIER F, CHOPIN C, HUART J: Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of antithrombin III concen-trates in septic shock with disseminated intravascular coagulation. Chest (1993) 104:882–888.
  • BALK R, EMERSON T, FOURRIER F et al.: Therapeutic use of antithrombin concentrate in sepsis. Semin. Thromb. HemosL (1998) 24:183–194.
  • GIEBLER R, SCHMIDT U, KOCH S, PETERS J, SCHERER R: Combined antithrombin III and Cl-esterase inhibitor treatment decrease intravascular fibrin deposition and attenuates cardiorespiratory impairment in rabbits exposed to Escherichia coil endotoxin. Grit. Care Med. (1999) 27:597–604.
  • INGHORN D, HOFFMANN JN, HARTL WH, MUHLBAYER D, JOCHUM M: Antithrombin III supplementation in severe sepsis: beneficial effects on organ dysfunction. Shock (1997) 8:328–334.
  • GOLDFARB RD, GLOCKD, JOHNSON K et al. Random- ised,, blinded, placebo-controlled trial of tissue factor pathway inhibitor in porcine septic shock. Shock (1998) 10(4):258.
  • ERIKSSON M, LARSSON A, SALDEEN T, MATTSSON C: Melagatran, a low molecular weight thrombin inhibitor, counteracts endotoxin-induced haemody-namic and renal dysfunctions in the pig. Throm. Haemost. (1998) 80(6):1022–1026.
  • DEMARIA A, CRAVEN DE, HEFLENNAN JJ, MELNTOSH TK, GRINDLINGER GA, MCCABE WR: Naloxone versus placebo in treatment of septic shock. Lancet (1985) 1:1363–1365.
  • LAW WR, MOURELATOS MG, KRAHMER R, DZIKI AJ, LYNCH WH, FERGUSON JL: Effects of phentolamine or yohimbine on naloxone's actions during endotoxin shock in rats. Shock (1997) 7:217–224.
  • OLDNER A, WANECEK M, GOINY M et al.: The endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan restores gut oxygen delivery and reverses intestinal mucosal acidosis in porcine endotoxin shock. Gut (1998) 42:696–702.
  • MITAKA C, HIRATA Y, YOKOYAMA K, NAGURA T, TSUNODA Y, AMAHA K: Improvement of renal dysfunc-tion in dogs with endotoxemia by a nonselective endothelin receptor antagonist. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 27:146–153.
  • WANECEK M, RUDEHILL A, HEMSEN A, LUNDBEREG JM, WEITZBERG E: The endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan, in combination with the cyclooxygenase inhibitor, diclofenac, counteracts pulmonary hypertension in porcine endotoxin shock. Grit. Care Med. (1997) 25:848–857.
  • WANECEK M, OLDNER A, RUDEHILL A, SOLLEVI A, ALVING K, WEITZBERG E: Cardiopulmonary dysfunc-tion during porcine endotoxin shock is effectively counteracted by the endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan. Shock (1997) 7:364–370.
  • BOLDT J, PAPSDORF M, KUMLE B, PIPERS, HEMPELMANN G: Influence of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor enalaprilat on endothelial-derived substances in the critically ill. Crit. Care Med. (1998) 26:1663–1670.
  • MALAY MB, ASHTON RC JR, LANDRY DW, TOWNSEND RN: Low-dose vasopressin in the treatment of vasodila-tory septic shock. J. Trauma (1999) 47:699–703.
  • SIEBECK M, SPANNAGL M, HOFFMANN H, FINK E: Effects of protease inhibitors in experimental septic shock. Agents Actions Suppl (1992) 38 (Pt3):421–427.
  • TANI T, AOKI H, YOSHIOKA T, LIN KJ, KODAMA M: Treatment of septic shock with a protease inhibitor in a canine model: a prospective, randomised, controlled trial. Crit. Care Med. (1993) 21:925–930.
  • GEHA RS, ROSEN FS: Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy. In: Therapeutic Immunology. Austen KF, Burakoff SJ, Rosen FS, Strom TB, (Eds.), Blackwell Science, Cambridge, USA (1996):280–296.
  • YU Z, LENNON VA: Mechanism of iv. immune globulin therapy in antibody-mediated autoimmune diseases. N Engl. J. Med. (1999) 340:227–228.
  • WERDAN K: Supplemental immunoglobulins in sepsis. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. (1999) 37:341–349.
  • MAESTRONI GJ: Melatonin as a therapeutic agent in experimental endotoxic shock. J. Pineal Res. (1996) 20(2)84–89.
  • BEN-NATHAN D, PADGETT DA, LORIA RM: Androstene-diol and dehydroepiandrosterone protect mice against lethal bacterial infections and lipopolysac-caride toxicity. J. Med. Microbiol. (1999) 48:425–431.
  • HUANG YCT, NOZIK ES, PIANTADOSI CA: Super oxide dismutase potentates platelet-activating factor-induced injury in perfused lung. Am. J. Physiol. (1994) 266:L246–254.
  • OPAL SM, CROSS AS, JHUNG JW et al.: Potential hazards of combination immunotherapy in the treatment of experimental septic shock. J. Infect. Dis. (1996) 173:1415–1421.
  • PERITI P, MAZZEI T: Antibiotic-induced release of bacterial cell wall components in the pathogenesis of sepsis and septic shock: a review. J. Chemother. (1998) 10:427–448.
  • SUFFREDINI AF, REDA D, BANKS SM et al: Effects of recombinant dimeric TNF receptor on human inflam-matory responses following iv. endotoxin administra-tion. J. Immunol. (1995) 155:5038–5045.
  • BAGBY GJ, PLESSALA KJ, WILSON LA et al.: Divergent efficacy of antibody to tumour necrosis factor-a in intravascular and peritonitis models of sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. (1991) 163:83–88.
  • AVONTUUR JA, TUTEIN-NOLTHENIUS RP, VAN BODEGOM JW, BRUINING HA: Prolonged inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in severe septic shock: a clinical study. Crit. Care Med. (1998) 26:660–667.
  • STUBER F, PETERSEN M, BOKELMAN F: A genomic polymorphism within the tumour necrosis factor locus influences plasma tumour necrosis factor-a concentrations and outcome of patients with severe sepsis. Grit. Care Med. (1996) 24:381–384.
  • PIPER RD, COOK DEBORAH JC, BONE R, SIBBALD W. Introducing Critical Appraisal to studies of animal model investigating novel therapies in sepsis. Grit. Care Med. (1996) 24:2059–2070.
  • TEPLICK R, RUBIN R: Therapy of sepsis: why have we made such little progress? Crit. Care Med. (1999) 27:1682–1683.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.