63
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Immunotherapy in atopic dermatitis

Pages 49-63 | Published online: 24 Feb 2005

Bibliography

  • CORBO GM, FERRANTE E, MACCIOCCI B et al.: Bronchial hyper-responsiveness in atopic dermatitis. Allergy (1989)44:595–598.
  • •First description of bronchial hyper-reactivity in AD even in absence of overt asthmatic symptoms.
  • DOHI M, OKUDAIRA H, SUGIYAMA H et al.: Bronchial responsiveness to mite allergen in atopic dermatitis without asthma. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. (1990) 92:138–142.
  • FABRIZI G, CORBO GM, FERRANTE E et al.: The relation-ship between allergy, clinical symptoms and bronchial responsiveness in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm. Venereal. Stipp]. (1992) 176:68–73.
  • SALOB SP, LAVERTY A, ATHERTON DJ: Bronchial hyp er -r esp onsiveness in children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics (1993) 91:13–16.
  • BRINKMAN L, ASLANDER MM, RAAIJMAKERS JA et al.: Bronchial and cutaneous responses in atopic dermatitis patients after allergen inhalation challenge. Clin. Exp. Allergy (1997) 27:1043–1051.
  • MAJAMAA H, ISOLAURI E: Evaluation of the gut muco sal barrier: evidence for increased antigen transfer in children with atopic eczema. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol (1996) 97:985–990.
  • LEUNG DYM: Atopic dermatitis: new insights and opportunities for therapeutic intervention. J Allergy Clin. Immunol (2000) 105:860–876.
  • WOLLENBERG A, BIEBER T: Atopic dermatitis: from genes to skin lesions. Allergy (2000) 55:205–213.
  • GREWE M, BRUJNZEEL-KOOMEN CA, SCHOPF E et al.: A role for Th1 and Th2 cells in immunopathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. Immunol Today (1998) 19:359–361.
  • BUTCHER EC, PICKER LJ: Lymphocyte homing and homeostasis. Science (1996) 272:60–66.
  • ROBERT C, KUPPER TS: Inflammatory skin diseases, T cell and immune surveillance. N Engl. J Med. (1999) 341:1817–1828.
  • ••Detailed review of all the features of T-cell-mediated skindiseases.
  • PICKER LJ, MICHIE SA, ROTT LS, BUTCHER EC: A unique phenotype of skin-associated lymphocytes in humans: preferential expression of the HECA-452 epitope by benign and malignant T cells at cutaneous sites. Am. J. Pathol (1990) 136:1053–1068.
  • DAVIS RE, SMOLLER BR: T-lymphocytes expressing HECA-452 epitope are present in cutaneous acute graft-versus-host disease and erythema multiforme, but not in acute graft-versus-host disease in gut organs. Am. J. Pathol. (1992) 141 :691–698.
  • PICKER LJ, TREER JR, FERGUSON-DARNELL B, COLLINS PA, BERGSTRESSER PR, TERSTAPPEN LW: Control of lymphocyte recirculation in man. II. Differential regulation of the cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen, a tissue-selective homing receptor for skin-homing T-cells. j Immunol. (1993) 150:1122–1136.
  • FUHLBRIGGE RC, KIEFFER JD, ARMERDING D, KUPPER TS: Cutaneous lymphocyte antigen is a specialized form of PSGL-1 expressed on skin-homing T-cells. Nature (1997) 389:978–981.
  • JALKANEN S, SAARI S, KALIMO H et al.: lymphocyte migration into the skin: the role of lymphocyte homing receptor (CD44) and endothelial cell antigen (HECA-452). J. Invest. Dermatol (1990) 94:786–792.
  • ARVILOMMI AM, SALMI M, AIRAS L, KALIMO K, JALKANEN S: CD73 mediates lymphocyte binding to vascular endothelium in inflamed human skin. Eur.J. Immunol (1997) 27:248–254.
  • WAGERS AJ, STOOLMAN LM, KANNAGI R, CRAIG R, KANSAS GS: Expression of leukocyte fucosyltransfe-rases regulates binding to E-selectin: relationship to previously implicated carbohydrate epitopes. J. Immunol. (1997) 159:1917–1929.
  • WAGERS AJ, STOOLMAN LM, CRAIG R, KNIBBS RN, KANSAS GS: An slzx-deficient variant of HILO cells exhibits high levels of adhesion to vascular selectins: further evidence that HECA-45 2 and CSLEX1 monoclonal antibody epitopes are not essential for high avidity binding to vascular selectins. j Immunol. (1998) 1 6 0:5122–5129.
  • PRIEST R, BIRD MI, MALHOTRA R: Characterization ofE-selectin-binding epitopes expressed by skin-homing T cells. Immunology (1998) 94:523–528.
  • ADAMS DH, HUBSCHER SG, FISHER NC, WILLIAMS A, ROBINSON M: Expression of E-selectin and E-selectin ligands in human liver inflammation. Hepatology (1996) 24:533–538.
  • DE VRIES IJ, LANGEVELD-WILDSCHUT EG, VAN REIJSENFC, BIHARI IC, BRUIJNZEEL-KOOMEN CA, THEPEN T: Nonspecific T-cell homing during inflammation in atopic dermatitis: expression of cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen and integrin OCEI37 on skin-infiltrating T-cells. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1997) 100:694–701.
  • ARMERDING D, KUPPER TS: Functional cutaneouslymphocyte antigen can be induced in essentially all peripheral blood T-lymphocytes. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. (1999) 119:212–222.
  • GALY AH, CEN D, TRAVIS M, CHEN S, CHEN BP: Delinea-tion of T-progenitor cell activity within the CD34+ compartment of adult bone marrow. Blood (1995) 85:2770–2778.
  • STRUNK D, EGGER C, LEITNER G, HANAU D, STINGL G: Askin homing molecule defines the langerhans cell progenitor in human peripheral blood. J. Exp. Med. (1997) 185:1131–1136.
  • EBNER S, LENZ A, REIDER D, FRITSCH P, SCHULER G, ROMANI N: Expression of maturation-/migration-related molecules on human dendritic cells from blood and skin. Immunobiology (1998) 198:568–587.
  • GALY A, MOREL F, HILL B, CHEN BP: Hematopoietic progenitor cells of lymphocytes and dendritic cells. J Immunother. (1998) 21:132–141.
  • LOUACHE F, DEBILI N, MARANDIN A, COULOMBEL L, VAINCHENKER W: Expression of CD4 by human hematopoietic progenitors. Blood (1994) 84:3344–3355.
  • MASTRANDREA F, MINARDI A, CORADDUZZA G, ROSSIN, CADARIO G: Atopic dermatitis: towards a plausible pathogenetic model. Ital. J Allergy Clin. Immunol (1998) 8:503–517.
  • STRICKLAND I, HAUK PJ, TRUMBLE AE, PICKER LJ, LEUNGDY: Evidence for superantigen involvement in skin homing of T cells in atopic dermatitis. J. Invest. Dermatol. (1999) 112:249–253.
  • BUNIKOWSKI R, MIELKE MEA, SKARABIS H et al.: Evidence for a disease promoting effect of Staphylo-coccus aureus-derived exotoxins in atopic dermatitis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (2000) 105:814–819.
  • MASTRANDREA F, MAIETTA G: T-cell response to house dust mite allergens and atopic dermatitis. Proceeding of the XVI European Congress of Allergology and Clinical Immunology. Madrid, Spain (1995):775–779.
  • GAMMON G, GEYSEN HM, APPLE RJ, PICKETT E, PALMERM, AMETANI A: T-cell determinant structure: cores and determinant envelopes in three mouse major histocompatibility complex haplotypes. J Exp. Med. (1991) 173:609–617.
  • O'BRIEN RM, THOMAS WR, WOOTTON AM: T-cell responses to purified major allergens from the house dust mite Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1992) 89:1021–1031.
  • O'HEHIR RE, VERHOEF A, PANAGIOTOPOULOU E et al:Analysis of human T-cell responses to the group II allergen of Dermatophagoides species: localization of major antigenic sites. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1993) 92:105–113.
  • JARMAN ER, HAWRYLOWICZ CM, PANAGIOTOPOLOU E,O'HEHIR RE, LAMB JR: Inhibition of human T-cell responses to house dust mite allergens by a T-cell receptor peptide. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol (1994) 94:844–852.
  • BERZOFSKY JA, BERWER IJ: Polyclonal T-cell response.In: Fundamental Immunology, Immunogenicity and Antigen Structure. Paul WE (Ed.), Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, USA (1999)666–667.
  • MASTRANDREA F, MOTTOLESE M, MAIETTA G, GIACOMINI P, TURSI A, NATALI PG: The Dermatopha-goides pteronyssinus native major antigen Der p II acts as polyclonal activator. Fund. Clin. Immunol (1995) 3:131–138.
  • BURNET FM: A modification of Jerne's theory of antibody production using the concept of clonal selection. Aust. J. Sci. (1957) 20:67–69.
  • COOMBS RRA, GELL PGH: Classification of allergic reactions responsible for clinical hypersensitivity and disease. In: Clinical Aspects of Immunology Gell PGH, Coombs RRA, Lachmann PJ (Eds.), Blackwell Science Publishers, Oxford, UK (1975):761–781.
  • SECRIST H, CHELEN CJ, WEN Y, MARSHALL JD, UMETSU DT: Allergen immunotherapy decreases interleukin 4 production in CD4+ T cells from allergic individuals. J Exp. Med. (1993) 178:2123–2130.
  • DURHAM SR, TILL SJ: Immunologic changes associated with allergen immunotherapy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1998) 102:157–164.
  • BENJAPONPITAK S, ORO A, MAGUIRE P, MARINKOVICH V, DE KRUYFF RH, UMETSU DT: The kinetics of change in cytokine production by CD4 +T-cells during conven-tional allergen immunotherapy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1999) 103:468–475.
  • BORISH L, ROSENWASSER L: Th1 /Th2 lymphocytes: doubt some more. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol (1997) 99:161–164.
  • SAURAT JH: Eczema in primary immune-deficiences: clues to the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis with special reference to the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. Acta Derm. Venereol. (1985) 1 1 4:125–128.
  • ••First indication of a relationship existing between a defect inbone-marrow-derived cells and AD pathogenesis.
  • AGOSTI JM, SPRENGER JD, LUM LG et al.: Transfer of allergen-specific IgE-mediated hypersensitivity with allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. N Engl. J Med. (1988) 319:1623–1628.
  • HANIFIN JM, BUTLER JM, CHAN SC: Irnmunopharma-cology of the atopic diseases. j Invest. Dermatol. (1985) 85:161–164.
  • MASTRANDREA F, CADARIO G, BEDELLO PG, NICOTRAMR, NATALI PG: Expression of T-lineage early developmental markers by cells establishing atopic dermatitis skin infiltrates. Invest. Allergol Clin. Immunol. (1998) 8:359–364.
  • MASTRANDREA F, CADARIO G, NICOTRAMR, NATALI PG: Hemopoietic progenitor cells in atopic dermatitis skin lesions. Invest. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. (1999) 9:386–391.
  • VAN LEEUWEN BH, MARTINSON ME, WEBB GC, YOUNG IG: Molecular organization of the cytokine gene cluster, involving the human IL-3, IL-4, IL-5 and GM-CSF genes, on human chromosome 5. Blood (1989) 73:1142–1148.
  • BUDD RC, MIESCHER GC, HOWE RC, LEES RK, BRON C, MACDONALD R: Developmentally regulated expres-sion of T-cell receptor beta chain variable domains in immature thymocytes. J Exp. Med. (1987) 166:577–582.
  • HUSMANN LA, SHIMONKEVITZ RP, CRISPE IN, BEVAN MJ: Thymocyte subpopulations during early fetal develop-ment in the BALB/c mouse. J. Immunol. (1988) 141:736–740.
  • NADEL B, FEENEY AJ: Influence of coding-end sequence on coding end processing in V (D) J recombination. J Immunol. (1995) 155:4322–4329.
  • WILLERFORD DM, SWAT W, ALT FW: Developmental regulation of V (D) J recombination and lymphocyte differentiation. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. (1996) 6:603–609.
  • SHARON N, LIS H: Izctins as cell recognition molecules. Science (1989) 2 4 6 :227–234.
  • WU W, PUNT JA, GRANGER L, SHARROW SO, KEARSE KP: Developmentally regulated expression of peanut agglutinin (PNA)-specific glycans on murine thymocytes. Glycobiology (1997) 7:349–356.
  • COLEMAN R, TREMBATH RC, HARPER JI: Genetic studies of atopy and atopic dermatitis. Br. J Dermatol. (1997) 136:1–5.
  • TANG ML, KEMP AS, THOBURN J, HILL DJ: Reduced interferon-gamma secretion in neonates and subsequent atopy. Lancet (1994) 344:983–985.
  • WARNER JA, MILES EA, JONES AC, QUINT DJ, COLWELLBM, WARNER JO: Is deficiency of interferon gamma production by allergen-triggered cord blood a predictor of atopic eczema? Clin. Exp. Allergy (1994) 24:423–430.
  • LIAO SY, LIAO TN, CHIANG BL et al.: Decreased produc-tion of IFNgamma and increased production of 116 by cord blood mononuclear cells of newborns with a high risk of allergy. Clin. Exp. Allergy (1996) 26:397–405.
  • SZEPFALUSI Z, NENTVVICH I, GERSTMAYR M et al.: Prenatal allergen contact with milk proteins. Clin. Exp. Allergy (1997) 27:28–35.
  • HOLT PG, RUDIN A, MACAUBAS C et al.: Development of immunologic memory against tetanus toxoid and pertactin antigens from the diphth eria-tetanus-p ertussis vaccine in atopic versus nonatopic children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (2000) 1 05 :1117–1122.
  • TRINCHIERI G: Interleukin 12: a proinflammatorycytokine with immunoregulatory functions that bridge innate resistance and antigenspecific adaptive immunity. Ann. Rev. Immunol. (1995) 13:251–276.
  • MC DYER JF, WU CY, SEDER RA: The regulation of 1112: Its role in infectious, autoimmune and allergic diseases. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1998) 102:11–15.
  • TAKI S, SATO T, OGASAWARA K et al.: Multistage regula-tion of Th1-type immune responses by the transcrip-tion Factor IRF-1. Immunity (1997) 6:673–679.
  • OGASAWARA K, HIDA S, AZIMI N et al.: Requirement for IRF-1 in the microenvironment supporting develop-ment of natural killer cells. Nature (1998) 391:700–703.
  • OHTEKI T, YOSHIDA H, MATSUYAMA T, DUNCAN GS, MAK TW, OHASHI PS: The transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF-1) is important during the maturation of natural killer 1.1+ T-cell receptor-alpha/beta+ (NK1+ 1) cells, natural killer cells and intestinal intraepithelial T-cells. J Exp. Med. (1998) 187:967–972.
  • GALON J, SUDARSHAN C, ITO S, FINBLOOM D, O'SHEA JJ: IL-12 induces IFN regulating factor-1 (IRF-1) gene expression in human NK and T-cells. J. Immunol. (1999) 162:7256–7262.
  • LOHOFF M, DUNCAN GS, FERRICK D et al.: Deficiency in the transcription factor interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-2 leads to severely compromised development of natural killer and T-helper Type 1 cells. J Exp. Med. (2000) 192:325–336.
  • HESSE M, CHEEVER AW, JANKOVIC D, WYNN TA: NOS-2 mediates the protective anti-inflammatory and antifi-brotic effects of the Th1 -inducing adjuvant, IL-12, in a Th2 model of granulomatous disease. Am. J Pathol. (2000) 157:945–955.
  • PLUMMERIDGE MJ, ARMSTRONG L, BIRCHALL MA, MILLAR AB: Reduced production of interleukin 12 by interferon gamma primed alveolar macrophages from atopic asthmatic subjects. Thorax (2000) 55:842–847.
  • DENBURG JA, TELIZYN S, BELDA A, DOLOVICH J, BIENENSTOCK J: Increased numbers of circulating basophil progenitors in atopic patients. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1985) 76:446–472.
  • OTSUKA H, DOLOVICH J, BEFUS AD, TELIZYN S, BIENEN-STOCK J, DENBURG JA: Basophilic cell progenitors, nasal metachromatic cells and peripheral blood basophils in ragweed-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1986) 78:365–371.
  • DENBURG JA, WOOLLEY M, LEBER B, LINDEN M, O'BYRNE P: Basophil and eosinophil differentiation in allergic reactions. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1994) 94:1135–1141.
  • DENBURG JA, INMAN MD, LEBER B, SEHMI R, O'BYRNE P: The role of the bone marrow in allergy and in asthma. Allergy (1996) 51:141–148.
  • DENBURG JA: Hemopoietic progenitors and cytokines in allergic inflammation. Allergy (1998) 53:22–26.
  • KIM YK, UNO M, HAMILOS DL et al.: Immunolocalization of CD34 in nasal polyp osis. Am. J Resp. Cell. Mol. (1999) 20:388–397.
  • LUNDQUIST C, BARANOV V, HAMMARSTROM S, ATHLIN L, HAMMARSTROM ML: Intr a-epithelial lymphocytes. Evidence for regional specialization and extrathymic T-cell maturation in the human gut epithelium. Int. Immunol. (1995) 9:1473–1487.
  • MASTRANDREA F: Main topics related to the pathogenesis of allergic diseases. Advanced Seminar in Allergy and Clinical Immunology Taranto, Italy (28–29 May 1999).
  • DENBURG JA, DOLOVICH J, OHTOSHI T, COX G, GAULDIE J, JORDANA M: The microenvironmental differentiation hypothesis of airway inflammation. Am. J. Rhino]: (1990) 4:29–32.
  • ••First proposal of local peripheral haematopoiesis.
  • MASTRANDREA F, MINARDI A, CORADDUZZA G, SCARCIA G: Tissue leukocytopoiesis in allergic diseases: clues to the pathogenetic model. Proceedings of the VIII Congress of the A.L. Section of the Italian Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. Bad, Italy (1999):43–49.
  • MASTRANDREA F, SERIO G, MINELLI M et al.: Specific sub-lingual immunotherapy in atopic dermatitis. Results of a 6-year follow up of 35 consecutive patients. Allergol Immunopathol. (2000) 28:54–62.
  • BOUSQUET J: Global initiative for asthma (GINA) and its objectives. Clin. Exp. Allergy (2000) 1 (Suppl.):2–5.
  • KEMP JP: Guidelines update: where do the new therapies fit in the management of asthma? NHLBI and WHO Global Initiative for Asthma. Drugs (2000) 1 (Suppl.):23–28.
  • STALDER JF, TAIEB A, ATHERTON DJ: Severity scoring of atopic dermatitis: The SCORAD Index. Dermatology (1993) 186:23–31.
  • DUTZ JP, HO VC: Immunosuppressive agents in dermatology. An update. DermatoL Clin. (1998) 16:235–251.
  • MARONE G: Tacrolimus ointment for atopic dermatitis. N Engl. J. Med. (1998) 339:1788.
  • SCHWARTZ RS: The new immunology - The end of immunosuppressive drug therapy? N Engl. J. Med. (1999) 340:1754–1756.
  • BARNES PJ: New directions in allergic diseases: Mechanism-based anti-inflammatory therapies. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (2000) 106:5–16.
  • SOWDEN JM, BERTH-JONES J, ROSS JS et al.: Double-blind, controlled, crossover study of cyclosporin in adults with severe refractory atopic dermatitis. Lancet (1991) 338:137–140.
  • VAN JOOST TH, HEULE F, KORSTANJE M, VAN DEN BROEK MJTB, STENVELD HJ, VAN VLOTEN WA: Cyclosporin in atopic dermatitis: a multicentre placebo-controlled study. Br. J. DermatoL (1994) 130:634–640.
  • NAEYAERT JM, LACHAPELLE JM, DEGREEF H, DE LA BRASSINNE M, HEENEN M, LAMBERT J: Cyclosporin in atopic dermatitis: review of the literature and outline of a Belgian consensus. Dermatology (1999) 198:145–152.
  • YAZDANBAKHSH K, CHOI JW, LI Y, LAU LF, CHOI Y: Cyclosporin A blocks apoptosis by inhibiting the DNA binding activity of the transcription factor Nur77. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1995) 92:437–441.
  • FLEISCHER AB: Treatment of atopic dermatitis: role of tacrolimus ointment as a topical noncorticosteroidal therapy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1 9 9 9) 104 (Suppl.):126–130.
  • RUZICKA T, BIEBER T, SCHOPF E et al.: A short-term trial of tacrolimus ointment for atopic dermatitis: European Tacrolimus Multicenter Atopic Dermatitis Study Group. N Engl. J. Med. (1997) 337:816–821.
  • BIEBER T: Topical tacrolimus (FK506): anew milestone in the management of atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1998) 102:555–557.
  • REITAMO S, RISSANEN J, REMITZ A et al.: Tacrolimus ointment does not affect collagen synthesis: results of a single-center randomized trial. j Invest. Dermatol. (1998) 111:396–398.
  • PAULE C, GRAEBER M, STUETZ A: Ascomycin: promising agents for the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases. Exp. Opin. Invest. Drugs (2000) 9:69–77.
  • HANIFIN JM, SCHNEIDER LC, LEUNG DYM et al.: Recombinant interferon gamma therapy for atopic dermatitis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. (1993) 28:189–197.
  • SCHNEIDER LC, BAZ Z, ZARCONE C, ZURAKOWSKI D: Long-term therapy with recombinant interferon-gamma (rIFN-gamma) for atopic dermatitis. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. (1998) 80:263–268.
  • JANG IG, YANG JK, LEE HJ et al.: Clinical improvement and immunohistochemical findings in severe atopic dermatitis treated with interferon gamma. j Am. Acad. Dermatol. (2000) 42:1033–1040.
  • ELLIS CN, STEVENS SR, BLOK BK, TAYLOR RS, COOPER KD: Interferon-gamma therapy reduces blood leukocyte levels in patients with atopic dermatitis: correlation with clinical improvement. Clin. Immunol. (1999) 92:49–55.
  • ROTHENBERG ME: Eosinophilia. N Engl. J. Med. (1998) 338:1592–1600.
  • SCANGA CB, LE GROS G: Development of an asthma vaccine: research into BCG. Drugs (2000) 59:1217–1221.
  • NOH G, LEE KY: Pilot study of IFN-gamma-induced specific hyposensitization for house dust mites in atopic dermatitis: IFN-gamma-induced immune deviation as a new therapeutic concept for atopic dermatitis. Cytokine (2000) 12:472–476.
  • NOON L, CANTAB BO: Prophylactic inoculation against hay fever. Lancet (1911) 1:1572–1573.
  • PAJNO GB, MORABITO L, BARBERIO G, PARMIANI S: Clinical and immunologic effects of long-term sub-lingual immunotherapy in asthmatic children sensitized to mites: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Allergy (2000) 55:842–849.
  • BOUSQUET J, LOCKEY RF, MALLING HJ: WHO position paper. Allergen immuno therapy: Therapeutic vaccines for allergic diseases. Allergy (1998) 53 (Suppl. 44):1–42.
  • BOQUETE M, CARBALLADA F, EXPOSITO F, GONZALEZ A: Preventive immunotherapy. Allergol Immunopathol (2000) 28 :89–93.
  • SENDIN I: Evaluation of the pediatric aspects of the WHO document and meta-analysis of immuno-therapy. Allergol. Immunopathol. (2000) 28:82–89.
  • BENSON K, HARTZ AJ: A comparison of observational studies and randomized, controlled trials. N Engl. J. Med. (2000) 242:1878–1886.
  • CONCATO J, SHAH N, HORWITZ RI: Randomized, controlled trials, observational studies and the hierarchy of research designs. N Engl. J Med. (2000) 3 42:1887–1892.
  • MARQUIS D: How to resolve an ethical dilemma concerning randomized clinical trials. N Engl. J Med. (1999) 341:691–693.
  • BUTOW PN, BROWN RF, TATTERSALL MHN: Ethics of clinical trials. N Engl. J Med. (2000) 342:978.
  • GLOVER MT, ATHERTON DJ: A double-blind controlled trial of hyposensitization to Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus in children with atopic eczema. Clin. Exp. Allergy (1992) 22:440–446.
  • LEROY BP, BODEN G, LACHAPELLE JM, JACQUEMIN MG, SAINT-REMY JM: A novel therapy for atopic dermatitis with allergen-antibody complexes: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. j Am. Acad. Dermatol. (1993) 28:232–239.
  • PACOR ML, BIASI D, MALEKNIA T: The efficacy of long-term specific immunotherapy for Dermatopha-goides pteronyssinus in patients with atopic dermatitis. Recenti Prog. Med. (1994) 85:273–277.
  • TROFIMOWICZ A, RZEPCKA E, HOFMAN J: Clinical effect of specific immunotherapy in children with atopic dermatitis. Rocz. Akad. Med. Bialymst. (1995) 40:414–422.
  • GALLI E, CHINI L, NARDI S et al: Use of oral hyposensiti-zation therapy to Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus in children with atopic dermatitis. Allergol. Immunopa-thol. (1994) 22:18–22.
  • MOSCA M, ALBANI-ROCCHETTI G, VIGNINI MA, UBEZIO S, NUME AG, DI SILVERIO A: La vaccinoterapia sub-ling-uale nella dermatite atopica. G. Ital. Dermatol Venereol. (1993) 1 2 8:79–83.
  • ZWACKA G, GLASER S, RIEGER B: Therapeutische erfahrungen mit Pangramin-SLIT im verleich zu einer subkutanen immunotherapie und zur symptoma-tischen medikamentosen behandlungbei kindern mit asthma bronchiale, rhinokonjunctivitis und atopischer dermatitis. Allergologie (1996) 19:580–592.
  • MOSES LE: Measuring effects without randomized trials? Options, problems, challenges. Med. Care (1995) 33 (Suppl.):AS8-AS14.
  • LEUNG DYM: Atopic Dermatitis: the skin as a window into the pathogenesis of chronic allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1995) 96:302–319.
  • BERGMANN RL, EDENHARTER G, BERGMANN KE: Atopic dermatitis in early infancy predicts allergic airway disease at 5 years. Clin. Exp. Allergy (1998) 28:965–970.
  • GUSTAFSSON D, SJOBERG 0, FOUCARD T: Development of allergies and asthma in infants and young children with atopic dermatitis - a prospective follow-up to 7 years of age. Allergy (2000) 55:240–245.
  • LAAN MP, BAERT MR, BIJL AM et al.: Markers for early sensitization and inflammation in relation to clinical manifestation of atopic disease up to 2 years of age in 133 high-risk children. Clin. Exp. Allergy (2000) 30:944–953.
  • PATRIZI A, GUERRINI V, RICCI G, NERI I, SPECCHIA F, MAST M: The natural history of sensitization to food and aeroallergens in atopic dermatitis: a 4-year follow-up. Pediatr. Dermatol. (2000) 17:261–265.
  • IIKURA Y, NASPITZ CK, MIKAWA H: Prevention of asthma by ketotifen in infants with atopic dermatitis. Ann. Allergy (1992) 68:233–236.
  • JACOBSEN L, NUCHEL PETERSEN B, WIHL JA, LOWENSTEIN H, IPSEN H: Immunotherapy with partially purified and standardised tree pollen extract. W Results from long-term (6-year) follow-up. Allergy (1997) 52:914–920.
  • DURHAM SR, WALKER SM, VARGA EM: Long-term clinical efficacy of grass-pollen immunotherapy. N Engl. J. Med. (1999) 341:468–475.
  • CHARMAN C, WILLIAMS H: Outcomes measures of disease severity in atopic eczema. Arch. Dermatol. (2000) 136:763–769.
  • THEODOROPOULOS DS, LOCKEY RF: Allergen immuno-therapy: guidelines, update and recommendations of the World Health Organization. Allergy Asthma Proc. (2000) 21:159–166.
  • MALLING HJ, ABREU-NOGUEIRA J, ALVAREZ-CUESTA E et EAACI immunotherapy subcommittee. Position paper: local immunotherapy. Allergy(1998) 53:933–944.
  • PURELLO D'AMBROSIO F, GANGEMI S, ISOLA S et al.: sub-lingual immunotherapy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with Parietaria judaica extract standardized in mass units in patients with rhino-conjunctivitis, asthma, or both. Allergy (1999) 54:968–973.
  • BOUSQUET J, SCHEINMANN P, GUINNEPAIN MT et al.: sub-lingual-swallow immunotherapy (SLIT) in patients with asthma due to house-dust mite: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Allergy (1999) 54:249–260.
  • PASSALACQUA G, ALBANO M, RICCIO A et al.: Clinical and immunologic effects of a rush sub-lingual immunotherapy to Parietaria species: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (1999) 104:964–968.
  • PAJNO GB, MORABITO L, BARBERIO G, PARMIANI S: Clinical and immunologic effects of long-term sub-lingual immuno therapy in asthmatic children sensitized to mites: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Allergy (2000) 55:842–849.
  • ALMAGRO E, ASENSIO 0, BARTOLOME JM et al.: Multicenter drug surveillance of sub-lingual immuno-therapy in allergic patients. Allergol Immunopathol (1995) 23:153–159.
  • DI RIENZO V, PAGANI A, PARMIANI S, PASSALAQUA G, CANONICA GW: Post-marketing surveillance study on the safety of sub-lingual immunotherapy in pediatric patients. Allergy (1999) 54:1110–1113.
  • ANDRE C, VATRINET C, GALVAIN S, CARAT F, SICARD H: Safety of sub-lingual-swallow immunotherapy in children and adults. Int. Arch. Allergy Iminunol. (2000) 121:229–234.
  • MASTRANDREA F, CORADDUZZA G, SERIO G, SCARCIA G, MINARDI A: T-cell receptor VP repertoire in mite-allergic subjects after sub-lingual immuno-therapy. Invest. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. (2000) 10:142–148.
  • YOSHIZAWA Y, MATSUI H, IZAKI S, KITAMURA K, MAIBACH HI: Topical dinitrochlorobenzene therapy in the treatment of refractory atopic dermatitis: systemic immunotherapy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. (2000) 42:258–262.
  • MILLS LB, MORDAN LJ, ROTH HL, WINGER EE, EPSTEIN WL: Treatment of severe atopic dermatitis by topical immune modulation using dinitrochlorobenzene. Am. Acad. Dermatol. (2000) 42:687–689.
  • KANO Y, OTAKE Y, SHIOHARA T: Improvement of lichen nitidus after topical dinitrochlorobenzene application. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. (1998) 39:305–308.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.