Macrolide antibiotics in food-animal health

Bibliography

• KIRST HA: Antibiotics (macrolides). In: Kirk-Othmer Ell- cyclopedia of Chemical Technology (Fourth Edition). How e-Grant M (Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1992) 3: 169–213. Comprehensive review of structures of macrolide antibiotics.
   Google Scholar
• DJERASSI C, ZDERIC JA: The structure of the antibiotic methymycin. J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1956) 78:6390–6395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEIGBIGEL NH: Macrolides and clindamycin. In: Princi-ples and Practice of Infectious Diseases (Fourth Edition). Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (Eds.), Churchill Livingstone, New York (1995):334–346.
   Google Scholar
• Physicians' Desk Reference (50th Edition). Medical Econom-ics Data Production Company, Montvale, NJ (1996).
   Google Scholar
• HARRIS DR, MCGEACHIN SG, MILLS HFI: The structure and stereochemistry of erythromycin A. Tet. Lek. (1965)679–685.
   Google Scholar
• KIRST HA: Semi-synthetic derivatives of erythromycin. Prog. Med. Chem. (1993) 30:57–88.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• FREIBERG L, EGAN RS, WASHBURN VVH: The synthesis of
   Google Scholar
• -epi-leucomycin A3. The revised configurational as-signment of C-9 in natural leucomycin A3. J. Org Chem. (1974) 39:2474–2475.
   Google Scholar
• OMURA S, NAKAGAWA A, NESZMELYI A etal: Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectral analysis of 16-membered macrolide antibiotics. J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1975) 97:4001–4009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OMURA S, NAKAGAWA A, MACHIDA M, IMAI H: Evidence for configurational identity between leucomycin and tylosin. Tet. Lett. (1977):1045–1047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MORIN RB, GORMAN M, HAMILL RL, DEMARCO PV: The structure of tylosin. Tet. Lett (1970):4737–4740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KIRST HA: Semi-synthetic derivatives of 16-membered macrolide antibiotics. Prog. Med. Chem. (1994) 31:265-295. Review of semisynthetic 16-membered macrolide antibiotics in human and veterinary medicine.
   Google Scholar
• OKAMOTO R, FUKUMOTO T, NOMURA H et al.: Physico- chemical properties of new acyl derivatives of tylosin produced by microbial transformation. J. Antibiot. (1980) 33:1300–1308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Japan: speciality chemicals (part 3) chemical manufac-turers' commodity strategies: Mercian Corp. Japan Chemical Week (1996) 37:4.
   Google Scholar
• KIRST HA: Expanding the role of macrolide compounds as therapeutic agents. In: Studies in Medicinal Chemistry. Iqbal Choudhary M (Ed.), Harwood Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1996) 1:1-47. Overview of discovery strategy and process leading to tilmicosin.
   Google Scholar
• KIRST HA, TOTH JE, DEBONO M et al.: Synthesis and evaluation of tylosin-related macrolides modified at the aldehyde function: a new series of orally effective antibiotics. J Med. Chem. (1988) 31:1631–1641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEBONO M, WILLARD KE, KIRST HA et al.: Synthesis and antimicrobial evaluation of 20-deoxo-20-(3,5-di-methylpiperidin-1-y1)-desmycosin (tilmicosin, EL-870) and related cyclic amino derivatives. J. Antibiot (1989) 42:1253–1267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCFARLAND JW, BERGER CM, LIPINSKI CA et al.: QSARamong macrolide antibacterial agents: the discovery of potent activity against Pasteurella multocida among repromicin derivatives. 20th IUPAC Symposium on the Chemistry of Natural Products. Chicago, IL (15–20 September, 1996). Abstract B0–22.
   Google Scholar
• Macrolides: Chemistry, Pharmacology and Clinical Uses.
   Google Scholar
• Bryskier AJ, Butzler JP, Neu HC, Tulkens PM (Eds.), Arnette Blackwell, Paris (1993). Comprehensive book covering all aspects of macrolide antibiotics used in human medicine.
   Google Scholar
• The New Macrolides, Azalides, and Streptogramins in Clinical Practice. Neu HC, Young IS, Zinner SH, Acar J (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York (1995).
   Google Scholar
• BRYSKIER A: Newer macrolides and their potential tar-get organisms. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. (1992) 5:764–772.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILSON RC: Macrolides in veterinary practice. In: Macrolide Antibiotics: Chemistry Biology and Practice. Omura S (Ed.), Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1984):301–347.
   Google Scholar
• The Merck Veterinary Manual (Seventh Edition). Fraser CM (Ed.), Merck & Company, Inc., Rahway, NJ (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine (Second edition). Prescott JF, Baggot JD (Eds.), Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA (1993). Useful and informative book to introduce readers to the practical uses of antibiotics in veterinary medicine.
   Google Scholar
• Compendium of Veterinary Products (Third Edition). Bennett K (Ed.), North American Compendiums, Inc., Port Huron, MI (1995).
   Google Scholar
• PLUMB DC: Veterinary Drug Handbook (Second Edition). Iowa State University Press, Ames, h4 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Code of Federal Regulations: Food and Drugs, Title 21, Parts 500–599. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC (1 April, 1996).
   Google Scholar
• WHITE SD: Systemic treatment of bacterial skin infec-tions of dogs and cats. Vet. Dermatol (1996) 7:133–143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BORDERS D: Antibiotics. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology(Fourth Edition). Howe-Grant M (Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1992) 2:893–904.
   Google Scholar
• WADSWORTH DJ: Animal health products. In: Agro-chemicals from Natural Products. Godfrey CRA (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York (1995):257–284.
   Google Scholar
• Animal-Pharm., PJB Publications Ltd., London (5 July, 1996)352: 9–10.
   Google Scholar
• MUSSER J, MECHOR GD, GROHN YT, DUBOVI EJ, SHIN S:Comparison of tilmicosin with long-acting oxytetracy-dine for treatment of respiratory tract disease in calves. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. (1996) 208:102–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCOTT PR, MCGOWAN M, SARGISON ND et at: Use oftilmicosin in a severe outbreak of respiratory disease in weaned beef calves. Austral. Vet J. (1996) 73:62–64.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GALYEAN ML, GUNTER SA, MALCOLMCALLIS KJ: Effects of arrival medication with tilmicosin phosphate on health and performance of newly received beef cattle. J. Anim. ScL (1995) 73:1219–1226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MOORE GM, MOWREY DH, TONKINSON LV eta].: Efficacy dose determination study of tilmicosin phosphate in feed for control ofpneumonia caused by Actin °bacillus pleuropneumoniae in swine. Am. J. Vet. Res. (1996) 57:220–223.
   Google Scholar
• MOORE GM, BASSON RP, TONKINSON LV: Clinical fieldtrials with tilmicosin phosphate in feed for the control of naturally acquired pneumonia caused by Actinobac-illus pleuropneumoniae and Pasteurella multocida in swine. Am. J. Vet Res. (1996) 57:224–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOBAYASHI H, MOROZUMI T, MUNTHALI G et al.: Macrolide susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyorhinis iso-lated from piglets. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:1030–1032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• INAMOTO T, TAKAHASHI H, YAMAMOTO K eta].: Antibi-otic susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae iso-lated from swine. J. Vet. Med. Sci. (1994) 56:393–394.
   Google Scholar
• INAMOTO T, KIKUCHI K, IIJIMA H et at: Antibacterialactivity of tilmicosin against Pasteurella multocida and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae isolated from pneu-monic lesions in swine. J. Vet Med. Sci. (1994) 56:917–921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TER LAAK FA, NOORDERGRAAF JH, VERSCHURE MU: Susceptibilities ofMycoplasma bovis, Mycoplasma dis-par, and Ureaplasma diversum strains to antimicrobial agents in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1993) 37:317–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HAYASHI T, OKADA J, KONDO S, YAMAZAKI T: Role ofintestinal excretion in the effect of subcutaneously administered sedecamycin on cecal infection caused by Treponema hyodysenteriae in mice. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1991) 35:1601–1604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UEDA Y, OHTSUKI S, NARUKAWA N, TAKEDA K Effect of terdecamycin on experimentally-induced Myco-p/asma-hyopneumoniae infection in pigs. J. Vet. Med. Series B (1994) 41:283–290.
   Google Scholar
• SHOOP WL, MROZIKH, FISHER MU: Structure and activity of avermectins and milbemycins in animal health. Vet Parasitol (1995) 59:139–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KORNIS GI: Avermectins and milbemycins. In: Agro-chemicals from Natural Products. Godfrey CRA (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York (1995):215–255.
   Google Scholar
• FISHER MH, MROZIK H: Avermectins. In: Kirk-OthmerEncyclopedia of Chemical Technology (Fourth Edition). Howe-Grant M (Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1992) 3:526–540.
   Google Scholar
• Ivermectin and Abamectin. Campbell WC (Ed.), Springer-Verlag, New York (1989).
   Google Scholar
• MOFFITT CM, HAUKENES AH: Regional investigational new animal drug permits for erythromycin as a feed additive and injectable drug. Progressive Fish-Culturist (1995) 57:97–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BANDIN I, SANTOS Y, TORANZO AE, BARJA JL: MICs and MBCs of chemotherapeutic agents against Renibac-terium salmoninarum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1991) 35:1011–1013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHNICK RA: Aquaculture chemicals. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (Fourth Edition). Howe-Grant M (Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1992) 3:608–623.
   Google Scholar
• 1996 Feed Additive Compendium (Volume 34). The Miller Publishing Co., Minnetonka, MN (1995).
   Google Scholar
• CATRON DV, MADDOCK HM, SPEER VC, VOHS RL: Effect of different levels of aureomycin with and without vitamin B12 on growing-fattening swine. Antibio1 Chemother. (1951) 1:31–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WALDROUP PW: Feeds and feed additives. In: Kirk-Oth-mer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (Fourth Edition). Howe-Grant M (Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1992) 10:288–300.
   Google Scholar
• HARDY DJ, HENSEY DM, BEYER JM et al: Comparative in vitro activities of new 14-, 15-, and 16-membered macrolides. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1988) 32:1710–1719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CAPOBIANCO JO, GOLDMAN RC: Macrolide transport in Escherichia coli strains having normal and altered OmpC and/or OmpF porins. Int. I Antimicrob. Agents (1994) 4:183–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FELMINGHAM D, ROBBINS MJ, SANGHRAJKA M et al: The in vitro activity of some 14-, 15- and 16-membered macrolides against Staphylococcus spp., Legionella spp., Mycoplasma spp. and Ureaplasma urealyticum. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. (1991) 17:91–99.
   Google Scholar
• GALE EF, CUNDLIFFE E, REYNOLDS PE et al.: The Molecular Basis of Antibiotic Action (Second Edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1981).
   Google Scholar
• CORCORAN JW: Mode of action and resistance mecha-nisms of macrolides. In: Macrolide Antibiotics: Chemistry, Biology, and Practice. Omura S (Ed.), Academic Press, Or-lando, FL (1984):231–259.
   Google Scholar
• VANNUFFEL P, COCITO C: Mechanism of action of strep-togramins and macrolides. Drugs (1996) 51 (Suppl. 0:20–30.
   Google Scholar
• MENNINGER JR: Functional consequences of bindingmacrolides to ribosomes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1985) 16 (Suppl. A):23–34.
   Google Scholar
• FISH SA, CUNDUFFE E: Structure-activity studies of ty-losin-related macrolides. j Antibiot (1996) 49:1044–1048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DI GIAMBATTISTA M, CHINALI G, COCITO C: The molecu-lar basis of the synergistic inhibitor activity of type A and B synergimycins on ribosomes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1989) 24:485–507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WEISBLUM B: Erythromycin resistance by ribosome modification. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:577-585. Part 1 of a thorough recent review of resistance to erythromycin.
   Google Scholar
• WEISBLUM B: Insights into erythromycin action from studies of its activity as inducer of resistance. Antimi-crob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:797-805. Part 2 of a thorough recent review of resistance to erythromycin.
   Google Scholar
• ALLEN NE: Biochemical mechanisms of resistance to non-cell wall antibacterial agents. Prog. Med. Chem. (1995) 32:157–238.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LECLERCQ R, COURVALIN P: Bacterial resistance to macrolide, lincosamide, and streptogramin antibiotics by target modification. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1991) 35:1267–1272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LECLERCQ R, COURVALIN P: Intrinsic and unusual resis-tance to macrolide, lincosamide, and streptogramin antibiotics in bactaia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1991) 35:1273–1276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'HARA K, YAMAMOTO K: Reaction of roxithromycin and clarithromycin with macrolide-inactivating en-zymes from highly erythromycin-resistant Escherichia Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:1036–1038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WONDRACK L, MASSA M, YANG By, SUTCLIFFE J: Clinical strain of Staphylococcus aureus inactivates and causes efflux of m acrolide s. Antimicrob. Agents Chem other. (1996) 40:992–998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SUTCLIFFE J, TAIT-KAMRADT A, WONDRACK L: Strepto-coccus pneumaniae and Streptococcus pyogenes resis-tant to macrolides but sensitive to clindamycin: a common resistance pattern mediated by an efflux sys-tem. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:1817–1824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Report of the Scientific Committee for Animal Nutrition
   Google Scholar
• •(SCAN) on the possible risk for humans on the use ofavoparcin as feed additive. (Opinion expressed 21 May 1996). V16474/96-rev I. European Union expert committee's report after evaluating evidence and concluding it does not support the proposal of a significant risk to human health by avoparcin.
   Google Scholar
• RICHTER A, LOSCHER W, WITTE W: Antibacterial growth promoters: problems from a pharmacotoxicological and microbiological perspective. Der Prakt. Tierarzt (1996) 7:603–624.
   Google Scholar
• DONNELLY JP, VOSS A, WITTE W, MURRAY BE: Does the use in animals of antimicrobial agents, including gly-cope ptide antibiotics, influence the efficacy of antimi-crobial therapy in humans? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1996) 37:389–390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HAYES PW, GUSTAFSON RH, LOTGERING IFK, MUDD AJ: Reply. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1996) 37:390–392.
   Google Scholar
• PEREZ-TRALLERO E, ZIGORRAGA C: Resistance to antimi-crobial agents as a public health problem: importance of the use of antibiotics in animals. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (1995) 6:59–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KUNESH JP, ZIMMERMAN DR: In-feed antibiotics. Large Animal Veterinarian (1994) 49:9–12.
   Google Scholar
• STONE HH, KOLB LD: The evolution and spread of gentamicin-resistant pseudornonads. J. Trauma (1971) 11:586–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WICK WE: Biological evaluation. In: Cephalosporins and Penicillins. Flynn EH (Ed.), Academic Press, New York (1972):496–531.
   Google Scholar
• Drug Action and Drug Resistance in Bacteria. 1. Macrolide Antibiotics and Lincomycin. Mitsuhashi S (Ed.), University Park Press, Baltimore, MD (1971).
   Google Scholar
• EADY FA, COVE JH: Topical antibiotic therapy: current status and future prospects. Drugs Expt Clin. Res. (1990) 16:423–433.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PETERSON LR: Quinolone resistance in clinical practice:occurrence and importance. In: Quinolone Antimicrobial Agents (Second Edition). Hooper DC, Wolfson JS (Eds.), American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. (1993): 119–137.
   Google Scholar
• COHEN ML: Epidemiology of drug resistance: implica-tions for a postantimicrobial era. Science (1992) 257: 1050–1055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KUNIN CM: Resistance to antimicrobial drugs-a world-wide calamity. Ann. Intern. Med. (1993) 118:557–561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WESTH H: Erythromycin-resistant Staphylococcus au reus in Denmark. APMIS (1996) 104:1-36. Detailed analytical review of the history and development of micro-bial resistance to erythromycin.
   Google Scholar
• BERKELMAN RL, BRYAN RT, OSTERHOLM MT et al.: Infec-tious disease surveillance: a crumbling foundation. Science (1994) 264:368-370. An article in a recent issue of Science that contains several reports on resistance to antibiotics.
   Google Scholar
• BAQUERO F: Antibiotic resistance in Spain: what can be done? Clin. Infect. Dis. (1996) 23:819–823.
   Google Scholar
• GOLDMANN DA, VVEINSTEIN RA, WENZEL RP eta].: &rate- gies to prevent and control the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms in hospitals. New Engl. j Med. (1996) 275:234-240. Analysis and recommendations for prevention and control of antibi-otic-resistant organisms.
   Google Scholar
• SHRYOCK TR, WHITE DW, STAPLES JM, WERNER CS: Minimum inhibitory concentration breakpoints and disk diffusion inhibitory zone interpretive criteria for tilmicosin susceptibility testing against Pasteurella spp. associated with bovine respiratory disease. J. Vet Diagn. Invest (1996) 8:337–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SALMON SA, WATTS JL, CASE CA et al: Comparison of MICs of ceftiofur and other antimicrobial agents against bacterial pathogens of swine from the United States, Canada, and Denmark. J. Clin. NlicrobioL (1995) 33:2435–2444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LACEY RW: Rarity of tylosin resistance in human patho-genic bacteria. Vet. Record (1988):438–439.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JORDAN FTW, HORROCKS BK: The minimum inhibitory concentration of tilmicosin and tylosin for Myco-plasma galliseptieum and Mycoplasma synoviae and a comparison of their efficacy in the control of Myco-plasma gallisepticum infection in broiler chicks. Avian Dis. (1996) 40:326-334. Recent evaluation of continued microbial susceptibility to macrolides and their in vivo efficacy in a role for which they have been traditionally used as therapeutic agents.
   Google Scholar
• ZIMMERMAN DR: Role of subtherapeutic levels of antimi-crobials in pig production. J. Anim. Sci (1986) 62 (Suppl. 3):6–17.
   Google Scholar
• SHRYOCK TR, MORTENSEN JE, BAUMHOLTZ M: The ef-fects of macrolides on bacterial virulence mechanisms. (mini-review) Manuscript in preparation.
   Google Scholar
• LORIAN V: Some effects of subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics on bacteria. Bull. NY. Acad. Med. (1975) 51:1046–1055.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GEMMELL CG, LORIAN V: Effects of low concentrations of antibiotics on bacterial ultrastructure, virulence, and susceptibility to immunode fens es: clinical signifi-cance? In: Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine (Fourth Edi- tion). Lorian V (Ed.), Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD (1996)397–452. Survey of effects exerted by sub-MIC concentrations of antibiotics on bacteria.
   Google Scholar
• TATEDA K, ISHII Y, HIRAKATA Y et al.: Profiles of outer membrane proteins and lipopolysacchar ide of Pseudo-monas aeruginosa grown in the presence of sub-MICs of macrolide antibiotics and their relation to enhanced serum sensitivity. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1994) 34:931–942.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NOMURA S, MURATA KM, NAGAYAMA: Effects of sub-minimal inhibitory concentrations of antimicrobial agents onthe cell-surface of Klebsiella pneumoniae and phagocytic killing activity. J. Chemother. (1995) 7:406–413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WATANABE T, KANNO M, TEJIMA E, ORIKASA Y: Effects of macrolides on ultrastructure of Staphylococcus aureus during postantibiotic phase. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. (1992) 18:81–88.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ODENHOLT-TORNQVIST I, LOWDIN E, CARS 0: Postanti-biotic effects and postantibiotic sub-MIC effects of roxithromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin on respiratory tract pathogens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:221–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VAROTTO F, GARLASCHI ML, GARLASCHI MC et al: In vitropostantibiotic effects ofmiocamycin and erythromycin on Gram-positive cocci. J. Chemother. (1990) 2:355–361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FERRARA A, DOS SANTOS C, CIMBRO M, GIALDRONI GRASSI G: Comparative antimicrobial activity and post-antibiotic effect of azithromycin, clarithromycin and roxithromycin against some respiratory pathogens. Int. J. Antimicrob. Aunts (1996) 7:181–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GONZALEZ CT, MAHESWARAN SK: The role of induced virulence factors produced by Pasteurella haemolytica in the pathogenesis of bovine pneumonic past etwel-losis: review and hypotheses. Brit Vet. J. (1993) 149:183–193.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GEMMELL CG, MCLEOD M: The effect of roxithromycin on the virulence of Gram-positive cocci. Diagn. Micro-biol. Infect. Dis. (1992) 15:675-70S.
   Google Scholar
• MONEIB NA, SHIBL AM, ELSAID MA, ELMASRY EM: Macrolides induced suppression of virulence factors produced by Staphylococcus aureus. Chemotherapy (1993) 5:289–292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MOLINARI G, GUZMAN CA, PESCE A, SCHITO GC: Inhibi-tion of Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factors by subinhibitory concentrations of azithromycin and other macrolide antibiotics. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1993) 31:681–688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MIZUKANE R, HIRAKATA Y, KAKU M et al.: Comparative in vitro exoenzyme-suppressing activities of az-ithromycin and other macrolide antibiotics against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1994) 38:528–533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAKATA K, YAJIMA H, TANAKA K et al.: Erythromycin inhibits the production of elastase by Pseudomonas aeruginosa without affecting its proliferation in vitro. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis (1993) 148:1061–1065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KITA E, SAWAKI M, OKU D etal: Suppression of virule nce factors of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by erythromycin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1991) 27:273–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TANAKA E, KANTHAKUMAR K, CUNDELL DR et al.: The effect of erythromycin on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and neutrophil mediated epithelial damage. J. Antimi-crob. Chemother. (1994) 33:765–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TATEDA K, ISHII Y, MATSUMOTO T et al: Direct evidence for antipseudomonal activity of macrolides: exposure-dependent bactericidal activity and inhibition of pro-tein synthesis by erythromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:2271-2275. Protein synthesis inhibition by macrolides shown against Pseudo-monas aeruginosa that may explain activity.
   Google Scholar
• KOBAYASHI H, OHGAKI N, TAKEDA H: Therapeutic pos-sibilities for diffuse panbronchiolitis. Int 1 Antimicrob. Agents (1993) 3:S81–S86.
   Google Scholar
• PIATTI G: Bacterial adhesion to respiratory mucosa: its modulation by antibiotics at sub-inhibitory concentra-tions. Pharmacol. Res. (1994) 30:289–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRAGA PC: Effects of subinhibitory concentrations of 7 macrolides and 4 fluoroquinolones on adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus to human mucosal cells. Che-motherapy (1994) 40:304–310.
   Google Scholar
• MASCELLINO MT, CATANIA S, DE VITO ML, DE BAC C: Erythromycin, miocamycin and clindamycin towards adhesivity and phagocytosis of Gram-positive bacteria. Microbiologica (1988) 11:231–241.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• VRANES J, ZAGAR Z, KURBEL S: Influence of subinhibi-tory concentrations of ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin and azithromycin on the morphdogy and adherence of P-fimbriated Escherichia coli.J Chemother. (1996) 8:254–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VRANES J: Effect of subinhibitory concentrations of ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, and azithromycin on the hemagglutination and adherence of uropathogenic Es-cherichia constrains. Chemotherapy. (1996) 42:177–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISHIDA LK, IKEDA K, TANNO N et al: Erythromycin inhibits adhesion of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bra nhamelia calarrhalis to human nasal epithelial cells. Am. J. Rhino]. (1995) 9:53–55.
   Google Scholar
• SCAGLIONE F, DEMARTINI G, DUGNANI S et al: Effect of antibiotics on Bordetella pertussis adhering activity: hypothesis regarding mechanism of action. Chemother-apy (1994) 40:215–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ICHIMIYA T, YAMASAKI T, NASU M: In vitro effects of antimicrobial agents on Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1994) 34:331–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KIRST HA, SIDES GD: Bioavailability of macrolide anti-biotics. In Macrolides: Chemistry, Pharmacology and Clini-cal Uses. Bryskier AJ, Butzler JP, Neu HC, Tulkens PM (Eds.), Arnette Blackwell, Paris (1993):441–449.
   Google Scholar
• BAHAL N, NAHATA MC: The new macrolide antibiotics: azithromycin, clarithromycin, dirithromycin, and roxithromycin. Ann. Pharmacother. (1992) 26:46–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEPOORTERE I, PEETERS TL, MATTHIJS G et al.: Structure-activity relation of erythromycin-related macrolides in inducing contractions and in displacing bound motilin in rabbit duodenum. J Gasfrointest. Motili (1989) 1:150–159.
   Google Scholar
• KIRST HA, SIDES GD: Metabolism of macrolides. In: Macrolides: Chemistry, Pharmacology and Clinical Uses. Bryskier AJ, Butzler JP, Neu HC, Tulkens PM (Eds.), Arnette Blackwell, Paris (1993):485–494.
   Google Scholar
• GERDING DN, HUGHES CE, BAMBERGER DM et al: Ex-travascular antimicrobial distribution and the respec-tive blood concentrations in humans. In: Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine(Fourth Edition). Lorian V (Ed.), Wil-liams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD (1990:835–899.
   Google Scholar
• BERGOGNE-BÉRÉZIN E: Tissue distribution of macrolide antibiotics. In: Macrolides: Chemistry Pharmacology and Clinical Uses. Bryskier AJ, Butzler JP, Neu HC, Tulkens PM (Eds.), Arnette Blackwell, Paris (1993):451–484.
   Google Scholar
• BERGOGNE-BÉRÉZIN E: Pre dieting the efficacy of antimi-crobial agents in respiratory infections - is tissue con-centration a valid measure? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1995) 35:363–371.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• THOMSON TD: Tylosin distribution in normal and pneu-monic swine lung. Proc. Am. Assoc. Swine PracL (1984): 59–64.
   Google Scholar
• BUTTS JD: Intracellular concentrations of antibacterial agents and related clinical implications. Clin. Pharma-cokinet Concepts (1994) 27:63–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LABRO MT: Intraphagocytic penetration of macrolide antibiotics. In Macrolides: Chemistry, Pharmacology and Clinical Uses. Bryskier AJ, Butzler JP, Neu HC, Tulkens PM (Eds.), Arnette Blackwell, Paris (1993):379–388.
   Google Scholar
• TULKENS PM: Intracellular distribution and activity of antibiotics. Eur. Clin. Microbiol. Infect Dis. (1991) 10:100-106. Discussion of mechanisms involved in intracellular properties and activities of macrolides.
   Google Scholar
• TULKENS PM: Intracellular pharmacokinetics and local-ization of antibiotics as predictors of their efficacy against intraphagocytic infections. Scand. J Infect Dis. (1991) 74 (Suppl.):209–217.
   Google Scholar
• BARZA M: Challenges to antibiotic activity in tissue. Clin. Infect. as. (1994) 19:910–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DONOWITZ GR: Tissue-directed antibiotics and intracel-lular parasites: complex interaction of phagocytes, pathogens, and drugs. Clin. Infect. as. (1994) 19:926–930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VAN DEN BROEK PJ: Antimicrobial drugs, microorgan-isms, and phagocytes. Rev. Infect. Dis. (1989) 11:213–245.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GLADUE RP, BRIGHT GM, ISAACSON RE, NEWBORG MF: In vitro and in vivo uptake of azithromycin (CP-62,993) by phagocytic cells: possible mechanism of delivery and release at sites of infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1989) 33:277–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEINBERG TH: Cellular transport of drugs. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1994) 19:916–921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MANDELL GL: Delivery of antibiotics by phagocytes. Clin. Infect. Dis (1994) 19:922–925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CARBON C: Clinical relevance of intracellular and ex-tracellular concentrations of macrolide. Infection (1995) 23\(Suppl. 1):S10–S14.
   Google Scholar
• CHABBERT YA: Early studies on in vitro and experimen-tal activity of spiramycin: a review. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1988) 22 (Suppl. B):1–11.
   Google Scholar
• LABRO MT: Pharmacology of spiramycin - a comparison with other macrolides. Drug Inyestig: (1993) 6\(Suppl. 0:15–28.
   Google Scholar
• BACKSTROM L, MCDONALD J, COLLINS MT eta].: Efficacy of tilmicosin, and a combination of tylosin and sul-famethazine, for control of swine atrophic rhinitis involving infection with toxigenic Pasteurella multo-cida type D. Swine Health and Production (1994) 2:11–14.
   Google Scholar
• LABRO MT: Host Defense and Infection. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York (1994).
   Google Scholar
• VANVLEM B, VANHOLDER R, DEPAEPE P eta].: Immuno-modulating effects of antibiotics: literature review. In-fection (1996) 24:275–291.
   Google Scholar
• STEVENS DL: Immune modulatory effects of antibiotics. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. (1996) 9:165–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GEMMELL CG: Antibiotics and neulrophil function - potential immunomodulating activities. J. Antimicrob. Chem other. (1993) 31(Suppl. B):23–33.
   Google Scholar
• LABRO MT: Effects of macrolides on host natural de-fences. In: Macrolides: Chemistry, Pharmacology and Clini-cal Uses. Bryskier AJ, Butzler JP, Neu HC, Tulkens PM (Eds.), Arnette Blackwell, Paris (1993):389–408.
   Google Scholar
• XU G, FUJITA J, NEGAYAMA K eta].: Effect of macrolide antibiotics on macrophage functions. Microbiol Immu-nol. (1996) 40:473–479.
   Google Scholar
• MCDONALD PJ, PRUUL H: Macrolides and the immune system. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. (1992) Suppl. 83:34–40.
   Google Scholar
• GEMMELL CG: Macrolides and host defences to respira-tory tract pathogens. J. Hosp. Infect. (1991) 19(Suppl. A):11–19.
   Google Scholar
• LABRO MT: Macrolides et immunite. Rev. Med. Interne (1987) 8:519–525.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LABRO MT: Immunomodulati on by antibacterial agents: is it clinically relevant? Drugs (1993) 45:319–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRANINGER W, WENISCH C, PARSHALK B: Do the effects in vitro of biological response modifiers correspond to clinical findings. J. Chemother. (1994) 6\(Suppl. 3) 23–28.
   Google Scholar
• MERONI PI: Immune-response to antibiotics in subjects with secondary immunodeficiency. J. Chemother. (1994) 6\(Suppl. 3):16–18.
   Google Scholar
• HANAFY MSM, ABDELRAHMAN Fl, SOLIMAN GA et al: Studies on the efficacy of combined immumstimulant-antibiotic therapy against experimental Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in chickens. Deutsche Tierar-ztliche Wochenschrift (1995) 102:408–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BABA T, YAMASHITA N, KODAMA H eta].: Effect of tylosin tartrate (Tylan Soluble) on humoral and cellular im-mune responses in chickens. Poultry Science: submitted.
   Google Scholar
• YANCEY RJ, SANCHEZ MS, FORD CW: Activity of antibi-otics against Staphylococcus aureus with polymor-phonuelear neutrophils. Eur. j Clin. Nlicrobiol. Infect. Dis. (1991) 10:107–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MADGWICK L, MAYER S, KEEN P: Penetration of antibi-otics into bovine neutrophils and their activity against intracellular Staphylococcus aureus. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1989) 24:709–718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISHIGURO M, KOGA H, KOHNO S et al: Penetration of macrolides into human polymorphonuclear leueo-cytes. j Antimicrob. Chemother. (1989) 24:719–729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STAMLER DA, EDELSTEIN MAC, EDELSTEIN PH: Az-ithromycin pharmacokinetics and intracellular con-centrations in Legionel la pneumophila-infected and uninfected guinea-pigs and their alveolar macro-phages. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1994) 38:217–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PASCUAL A, CONEJO MC, GARCIA I, PEREA EJ: Factors affecting the intracellular accumulation and activity of azithromycin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1995) 35:85–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MTAIRAG E-M, ABDELGHAFFAR H, DOUHET C, LABRO MT: Role of extra cellular calcium in in vitro uptake and intraphagocytic location of macrolides. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:1676–1682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BLAIS J, CHAMBERLAND S: Uptake of tilmicosin in mouse macrophages and human monocytes. 33rd Intel-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. New Orleans, LA (17–20 October, 1993). Abstract 722.
   Google Scholar
• CANTIN L, CHAMBERLAND S: Tilmicosin possesses in vitro and in vivo activity against Toxoplasma gondiL 33rd Intel-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy New Orleans, LA (17–20 October, 1993). Abstract 750.
   Google Scholar
• LABRO MT, EL BENNA J: Synergistic bactericidal interac-tion of josamycin with human neutrophils in vitra J. Antimicrob. Chemoher. (1990) 26:515–524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SILVESTRI M, ODDERA S, EFTIMIADI C, ROSSI GA: Az-ithromycin induces in vitro a time-dependent increase in the intracellular killing of Staphylococcus aureus by human polymorphonuclear leucocyte s without damag-ing phagocytes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1995) 36:941–950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TOMAZIC J, KOTNIK V, WRABER B: In vivo administra-tion of azithromycin affects lymphocyte activity in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1993) 37:1786–1789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILDFEUER A, LAUFEN H, ZIMMERMANN T: Uptake of azithromycin by various cells and its intracellular ac-tivity under in vivo conditions. Antimicrob. Agents Chem other. (1996) 40:75–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WENISCH C, PARSCHALK B, ZEDTWITZ-LIEBENSTEIN K et al.: Effect of single oral dose of azithromycin, clarithromycin, and roxithromycin on polymorphonu-clear leukocyte function assessed ex vivo by flow cy-tometr.Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:2039–2042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ABDELGHAFFAR H, MTAIRAG E-M, LABRO MT: Effects of dirithromycin and erythromycyla mine on human neu-trophil degranulation. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1994) 38:1548–1554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LABRO MT, EL BENNA J, BABIN-CEIEVAYE C: Comparison of the in vitro effect of several macrolides on the oxidative burst of human neutrophils. j Antimicrob. Chemother. (1989) 24:561–572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AGEN C, DANESI R, BLANDIZZI C et al: Macrolide antibi-otics as antiinflammatory agents: roxithromycin in an unexpected role. Agents Actions (1993) 38:85–90.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MIKASA K, KITA E, SAWAKI M eta].: The anti-inflamma-tory effect of erythromycin in zymosan-induced peri-tonitis of mice. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1992) 30: 339–348.
   Google Scholar
• WALTERS CE, RICHARDS S, EADY EA et al.: Novel antiin-flammatory properties of erythromycin: in vitroreduc-tion of monocyte intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression. J. Invest. Dermatol (1996) 107:218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AOSHIBA K, NAGAI A, KONNO K: Erythromycin shortens neutrophil survival by accelerating apoptosis. Antimi-crob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:872–877.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UMEKI S: Anti-inflammatory action of erythromycin. Chest (1993) 104:1191–1193.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• RAS GJ, ANDERSON R, TAYLOR GW et al.: Clindamycin, erythromycin, and roxithromycin inhibit the proin-flammatory interactions of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pigments with human neutrophils in vitra Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1992) 36:1236–1240.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HORI S, SATO J, KAWAMURA M: Macrolides increase endogenous glucocorticoid levels. 36th Interscience Con-ference on Antimicrobrial Agents and Chemotherapy New Orleans, LA (15–18 Sept., 1996). Abstract A83.
   Google Scholar
• TAMAOKI J, NAKATA J, TAGAYA E, KONNO K: Effects of roxithromycin and erythromycin on interleukin 8-in-duced neutrophil recruitment and goblet cell secretion in guinea-pig tracheas. Antimicrob. Ants Chemother. (1996) 40:17261728.
   Google Scholar
• RIPOLL L, REINERT P, PEPIN L-F, IAGRANGE PH: Interac-tion of macrolides with a-dornase during DNA hydroly-sis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1996) 37:987–991.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HENDERSON B, POOLE S, WILSON M: Microbial host interactions in health and disease: who controls the cytokine network? Immunopharmacology (1996) 35:1–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HENDERSON B, POOLE S, WILSON M: Bacterial modulins: a novel class ofvirulence factors which cause host tissue pathology by inducing cytokine synthe4s. Microbiol Rev. (1996) 60:316–341.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CHINA, MORCK DW, MERRILL JK et al.: Tilmicosin: effects on neutrophils in the Pasteurella haemolytica-infected lung. 36th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. New Orleans, LA (15–18 Sept., 1996). Abstract G19.
   Google Scholar