Pharmacotherapy for acute pain in children: current practice and recent advances

Bibliography

• Karling M, Renstrom M, Ljungman G. Acute and postoperative pain in children: a Swedish nationwide survey. Acta Paediatr 2002;91(6):660-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saroyan JM, Schechter WS, Tresgallo ME, Assessing resident knowledge of acute pain management in hospitalized children: a pilot study. J Pain Symptom Manage 2008;12(6):628-38
   Google Scholar
• Taylor EM, Boyer K, Campbell FA. Pain in hospitalized children: a prospective cross-sectional survey of pain prevalence, intensity, assessment and management in a Canadian pediatric teaching hospital. Pain Res Manag 2008;13(1):25-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Losek JD, Reid S. Effects of initial pain treatment on sedation recovery time in pediatric emergency care. Pediatr Emerg Care 2006;22(2):100-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Baeyer CL, Spagrud LJ. Systematic review of observational (behavioral) measures of pain for children and adolescents aged 3 to 18 years. Pain 2007;127(1-2):140-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald M. The development of nociceptive circuits. Nat Rev Neurosci 2005;6(7):507-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pattinson D, Fitzgerald M. The neurobiology of infant pain: development of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in the spinal dorsal horn. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004;29(1):36-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slater R, Cantarella A, Gallella S, Cortical pain responses in human infants. J Neurosci 2006;26(14):3662-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker SM. Pain in children: recent advances and ongoing challenges. Br J Anaesth 2008;101(1):101-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ, Meakin GH. Scaling for size: some implications for paediatric anaesthesia dosing. Paediatr Anaesth 2002;12(3):205-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baber N, Pritchard D. Dose estimation for children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2003;56(5):489-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard RF. Current status of pain management in children. JAMA 2003;290(18):2464-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ. Paracetamol (Acetaminophen): mechanisms of action. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18(10):915-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ. Comparing the efficacy of NSAIDs and paracetamol in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2004;14(3):201-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibb IA, Anderson BJ. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) pharmacodynamics: interpreting the plasma concentration. Arch Dis Child 2008;93(3):241-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ, Woollard GA, Holford NH. Acetaminophen analgesia in children: placebo effect and pain resolution after tonsillectomy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2001;57(8):559-69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ, van Lingen RA, Hansen TG, Acetaminophen developmental pharmacokinetics in premature neonates and infants: a pooled population analysis. Anesthesiology 2002;96(6):1336-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murat I, Baujard C, Foussat C, Tolerance and analgesic efficacy of a new i.v. paracetamol solution in children after inguinal hernia repair. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15(8):663-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson B, Kanagasundarum S, Woollard G. Analgesic efficacy of paracetamol in children using tonsillectomy as a pain model. Anaesth Intensive Care 1996;24(6):669-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ, Woolard GA, Holford NH. Pharmacokinetics of rectal paracetamol after major surgery in children. Paediatr Anaesth 1995;5(4):237-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard R, Carter B, Curry J, Analgesia review. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18(Suppl 1):64-78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watcha MF, Ramirez-Ruiz M, White PF, Perioperative effects of oral ketorolac and acetaminophen in children undergoing bilateral myringotomy. Can J Anaesth 1992;39(7):649-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertin L, Pons G, d'Athis P, Randomized, double-blind, multicenter, controlled trial of ibuprofen versus acetaminophen (paracetamol) and placebo for treatment of symptoms of tonsillitis and pharyngitis in children. J Pediatr 1991;119(5):811-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard CR, Howard FM, Weitzman ML. Acetaminophen analgesia in neonatal circumcision: the effect on pain. Pediatrics 1994;93(4):641-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusy LM, Houck CS, Sullivan LJ, A double-blind evaluation of ketorolac tromethamine versus acetaminophen in pediatric tonsillectomy: analgesia and bleeding. Anesth Analg 1995;80(2):226-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mather SJ, Peutrell JM. Postoperative morphine requirements, nausea and vomiting following anaesthesia for tonsillectomy. Comparison of intravenous morphine and non-opioid analgesic techniques. Paediatr Anaesth 1995;5(3):185-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueras Nadal C, Garcia de Miguel MJ, Gomez Campdera A, Effectiveness and tolerability of ibuprofen-arginine versus paracetamol in children with fever of likely infectious origin. Acta Paediatr 2002;91(4):383-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walson PD, Galletta G, Braden NJ, Ibuprofen, acetaminophen, and placebo treatment of febrile children. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989;46(1):9-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Esch A, Van Steensel-Moll HA, Steyerberg EW, Antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen and acetaminophen in children with febrile seizures. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995;149(6):632-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyer WJ III, Nichols RJ, Cortiella J, Acetaminophen in the management of background pain in children post-burn. J Pain Symptom Manage 1997;13(1):50-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaudreault P, Guay J, Nicol O, Pharmacokinetics and clinical efficacy of intrarectal solution of acetaminophen. Can J Anaesth 1988;35(2):149-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korpela R, Korvenoja P, Meretoja OA. Morphine-sparing effect of acetaminophen in pediatric day-case surgery. Anesthesiology 1999;91(2):442-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ, Holford NH. Rectal paracetamol dosing regimens: determination by computer simulation. Paediatr Anaesth 1997;7(6):451-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ, Palmer GM. Recent pharmacological advances in paediatric analgesics. Biomed Pharmacother 2006;60(7):303-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumpulainen E, Kokki H, Halonen T, Paracetamol (acetaminophen) penetrates readily into the cerebrospinal fluid of children after intravenous administration. Pediatrics 2007;119(4):766-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berl V, Barbaud A, Lepoittevin JP. Mechanism of allergic contact dermatitis from propacetamol: sensitization to activated N,N-diethylglycine. Contact Dermatitis 1998;38(4):185-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BJ, Pons G, Autret-Leca E, Pediatric intravenous paracetamol (propacetamol) pharmacokinetics: a population analysis. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15(4):282-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson-Smith EM, Morton NS. Survey of i.v. paracetamol (acetaminophen) use in neonates and infants under 1 year of age by UK anesthetists. Paediatr Anaesth 2009;19(4):329-37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer GM, Chen SP, Smith KR, Introduction and audit of intravenous paracetamol at a tertiary paediatric teaching hospital. Anaesth Intensive Care 2007;35(5):702-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegaert K, Anderson BJ, Naulaers G, Intravenous paracetamol (propacetamol) pharmacokinetics in term and preterm neonates. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2004;60(3):191-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer GM, Atkins M, Anderson BJ, I.V. acetaminophen pharmacokinetics in neonates after multiple doses. Br J Anaesth 2008;101(4):523-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penna A, Buchanan N. Paracetamol poisoning in children and hepatotoxicity. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1991;32(2):143-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearns GL, Leeder JS, Wasserman GS. Acetaminophen overdose with therapeutic intent. J Pediatr 1998;132(1):5-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahadevan SB, McKiernan PJ, Davies P, Paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity. Arch Dis Child 2006;91(7):598-603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore PK, Marshall M. Nitric oxide releasing acetaminophen (nitroacetaminophen). Dig Liver Dis 2003;35(Suppl 2):S49-60
   Google Scholar
• Antila H, Manner T, Kuurila K, Ketoprofen and tramadol for analgesia during early recovery after tonsillectomy in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16(5):548-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobias JD. Weak analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents in the management of children with acute pain. Pediatr Clin North Am 2000;47(3):527-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riad W, Moussa A. Pre-operative analgesia with rectal diclofenac and/or paracetamol in children undergoing inguinal hernia repair. Anaesthesia 2007;62(12):1241-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morse Z, Tump A, Kevelham E. Ibuprofen as a pre-emptive analgesic is as effective as rofecoxib for mandibular third molar surgery. Odontology 2006;94(1):59-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oztekin S, Hepaguslar H, Kar AA, Preemptive diclofenac reduces morphine use after remifentanil-based anaesthesia for tonsillectomy. Paediatr Anaesth 2002;12(8):694-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eustace N, O'Hare B. Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in infants. A survey of members of the Association of Paediatric Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland. Paediatr Anaesth 2007;17(5):464-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standing JF, Howard RF, Johnson A, Population pharmacokinetics of oral diclofenac for acute pain in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2008;66(6):846-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kokki H, Karvinen M, Jekunen A. Pharmacokinetics of a 24-hour intravenous ketoprofen infusion in children. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2002;46(2):194-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirt D, Van Overmeire B, Treluyer JM, An optimized ibuprofen dosing scheme for preterm neonates with patent ductus arteriosus, based on a population pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2008;65(5):629-36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kokki H, Kumpulainen E, Lehtonen M, Cerebrospinal fluid distribution of ibuprofen after intravenous administration in children. Pediatrics 2007;120(4):e1002-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark E, Plint AC, Correll R, A randomized, controlled trial of acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and codeine for acute pain relief in children with musculoskeletal trauma. Pediatrics 2007;119(3):460-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drendel AL, Gorelick MH, Weisman SJ, A randomized clinical trial of ibuprofen versus acetaminophen with codeine for acute pediatric arm fracture pain. Ann Emerg Med 2009;54(4):553-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friday JH, Kanegaye JT, McCaslin I, Ibuprofen provides analgesia equivalent to acetaminophen-codeine in the treatment of acute pain in children with extremity injuries: a randomized clinical trial. Acad Emerg Med 2009;16(8):711-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon JS, Jeong DC, Oh JW, The effects and safety of dexibuprofen compared with ibuprofen in febrile children caused by upper respiratory tract infection. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2008;66(6):854-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standing JF, Savage I, Pritchard D, Diclofenac for acute pain in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;(4):CD005538
   Google Scholar
• Standing JF, Ooi K, Keady S, Prospective observational study of adverse drug reactions to diclofenac in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2009;68(2):243-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kokki H, Kumpulainen E, Laisalmi M, Diclofenac readily penetrates the cerebrospinal fluid in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2008;65(6):879-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy DB, Kavanagh P, O'Connor P, Pharmacokinetic profile of rectally administered diclofenac sodium in children undergoing adenotonsillectomy. Paediatr Anaesth 2000;10(6):694-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Marel CD, Anderson BJ, Romsing J, Diclofenac and metabolite pharmacokinetics in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2004;14(6):443-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gandhi M, Prosser D. Our experience of Dyloject (intravenous diclofenac) in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2009;19(9):908-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forrest JB, Heitlinger EL, Revell S. Ketorolac for postoperative pain management in children. Drug Saf 1997;16(5):309-29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keidan I, Zaslansky R, Eviatar E, Intraoperative ketorolac is an effective substitute for fentanyl in children undergoing outpatient adenotonsillectomy. Paediatr Anaesth 2004;14(4):318-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kokki H, Homan E, Tuovinen K, Peroperative treatment with i.v. ketoprofen reduces pain and vomiting in children after strabismus surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1999;43(1):13-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramaniam R, Joshi C, Sharma A, Analgesic efficacy of single-dose parecoxib for corneal suturing in children. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2007;24(5):464-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ong CK, Seymour RA, Lirk P, Combining paracetamol (acetaminophen) with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs: a qualitative systematic review of analgesic efficacy for acute postoperative pain. Anesth Analg 2010;110(4):1170-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gazal G, Mackie IC. A comparison of paracetamol, ibuprofen or their combination for pain relief following extractions in children under general anaesthesia: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Paediatr Dent 2007;17(3):169-77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiller A, Meretoja OA, Korpela R, The analgesic efficacy of acetaminophen, ketoprofen, or their combination for pediatric surgical patients having soft tissue or orthopedic procedures. Anesth Analg 2006;102(5):1365-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickering AE, Bridge HS, Nolan J, Double-blind, placebo-controlled analgesic study of ibuprofen or rofecoxib in combination with paracetamol for tonsillectomy in children. Br J Anaesth 2002;88(1):72-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viitanen H, Tuominen N, Vaaraniemi H, Analgesic efficacy of rectal acetaminophen and ibuprofen alone or in combination for paediatric day-case adenoidectomy. Br J Anaesth 2003;91(3):363-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong JY, Won Han S, Kim WO, Fentanyl sparing effects of combined ketorolac and acetaminophen for outpatient inguinal hernia repair in children. J Urol 2010;183(4):1551-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Short JA, Barr CA, Palmer CD, Use of diclofenac in children with asthma. Anaesthesia 2000;55(4):334-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesko SM, Louik C, Vezina RM, Asthma morbidity after the short-term use of ibuprofen in children. Pediatrics 2002;109(2):E20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krause I, Cleper R, Eisenstein B, Acute renal failure, associated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in healthy children. Pediatr Nephrol 2005;20(9):1295-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardwell M, Siviter G, Smith A. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and perioperative bleeding in paediatric tonsillectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005;(2):CD003591
   Google Scholar
• Niemi TT, Taxell C, Rosenberg PH. Comparison of the effect of intravenous ketoprofen, ketorolac and diclofenac on platelet function in volunteers. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997;41(10):1353-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Autret-Leca E, Bensouda-Grimaldi L, Maurage C, Upper gastrointestinal complications associated with NSAIDs in children. Therapie 2007;62(2):173-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald TM, Morant SV, Robinson GC, Association of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with continued exposure: cohort study. BMJ 1997;315(7119):1333-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesko SM, Mitchell AA. An assessment of the safety of pediatric ibuprofen. A practitioner-based randomized clinical trial. JAMA 1995;273(12):929-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desai PR, Sriskandan S. Hypothermia in a child secondary to ibuprofen. Arch Dis Child 2003;88(1):87-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ospina CA, Salcedo A. Ibuprofen increases soft tissue infections in children. BMJ 2008;337:a1767
   Google Scholar
• Zecca E, Romagnoli C, De Carolis MP, Does Ibuprofen increase neonatal hyperbilirubinemia? Pediatrics 2009;124(2):480-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dayer P, Desmeules J, Collart L. Pharmacology of tramadol. Drugs 1997;53(Suppl 2):18-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grond S, Sablotzki A. Clinical pharmacology of tramadol. Clin Pharmacokinet 2004;43(13):879-923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halfpenny DM, Callado LF, Hopwood SE, Effects of tramadol stereoisomers on norepinephrine efflux and uptake in the rat locus coeruleus measured by real time voltammetry. Br J Anaesth 1999;83(6):909-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gan SH, Ismail R, Wan Adnan WA, Correlation of tramadol pharmacokinetics and CYP2D6*10 genotype in Malaysian subjects. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2002;30(2):189-95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murthy BV, Pandya KS, Booker PD, Pharmacokinetics of tramadol in children after i.v. or caudal epidural administration. Br J Anaesth 2000;84(3):346-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrido MJ, Habre W, Rombout F, Population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modelling of the analgesic effects of tramadol in pediatrics. Pharm Res 2006;23(9):2014-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegaert K, Anderson BJ, Verbesselt R, Tramadol disposition in the very young: an attempt to assess in vivo cytochrome P-450 2D6 activity. Br J Anaesth 2005;95(2):231-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegaert K, van den Anker JN, de Hoon JN, Covariates of tramadol disposition in the first months of life. Br J Anaesth 2008;100(4):525-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer Z, Gorur K, Altunkan AA, Efficacy of tramadol versus meperidine for pain relief and safe recovery after adenotonsillectomy. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2003;20(11):920-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelhardt T, Steel E, Johnston G, Tramadol for pain relief in children undergoing tonsillectomy: a comparison with morphine. Paediatr Anaesth 2003;13(3):249-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hullett BJ, Chambers NA, Pascoe EM, Tramadol vs morphine during adenotonsillectomy for obstructive sleep apnea in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16(6):648-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiaretti A, Viola L, Pietrini D, Preemptive analgesia with tramadol and fentanyl in pediatric neurosurgery. Childs Nerv Syst 2000;16(2):93-9, discussion 100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne KA, Roelofse JA, Shipton EA. Pharmacokinetics of oral tramadol drops for postoperative pain relief in children aged 4 to 7 years–a pilot study. Anesth Prog 2002;49(4):109-12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zwaveling J, Bubbers S, van Meurs AH, Pharmacokinetics of rectal tramadol in postoperative paediatric patients. Br J Anaesth 2004;93(2):224-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yildiz TS, Ozdamar D, Bagus F, Levobupivacaine-tramadol combination for caudal block in children: a randomized, double-blinded, prospective study. Paediatr Anaesth 2010;20(6):524-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laiq N, Khan MN, Tahmeedullah, Comparison of caudal bupivacaine and bupivacaine-tramadol for postoperative analgesia in children undergoing hypospadias surgery. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 2009;19(11):678-81
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Choudhuri AH, Dharmani P, Kumarl N, Comparison of caudal epidural bupivacaine with bupivacaine plus tramadol and bupivacaine plus ketamine for postoperative analgesia in children. Anaesth Intensive Care 2008;36(2):174-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunduz M, Ozcengiz D, Ozbek H, A comparison of single dose caudal tramadol, tramadol plus bupivacaine and bupivacaine administration for postoperative analgesia in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2001;11(3):323-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann KA, Kratzenberg U, Schroeder-Bark B, Postoperative patient-controlled analgesia with tramadol: analgesic efficacy and minimum effective concentrations. Clin J Pain 1990;6(3):212-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kranke P, Eberhart LH, Roewer N, Single-dose parenteral pharmacological interventions for the prevention of postoperative shivering: a quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Anesth Analg 2004;99(3):718-27, table of contents
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohta M, Kumari N, Tyagi A, Tramadol for prevention of postanaesthetic shivering: a randomised double-blind comparison with pethidine. Anaesthesia 2009;64(2):141-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott LJ, Perry CM. Tramadol: a review of its use in perioperative pain. Drugs 2000;60(1):139-76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosenberg AT, Ratcliffe S. The respiratory effects of tramadol in children under halothane an anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1998;53(10):960-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones D, Story DA. Serotonin syndrome and the anaesthetist. Anaesth Intensive Care 2005;33(2):181-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashburn MA, Caplan RA, Carr DB, Practice guidelines for acute pain management in the perioperative setting: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Acute Pain Management. Anesthesiology 2004;100(6):1573-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Dijk M, Bouwmeester NJ, Duivenvoorden HJ, Efficacy of continuous versus intermittent morphine administration after major surgery in 0-3-year-old infants; a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Pain 2002;98(3):305-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard R, Carter B, Curry J, Postoperative pain. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18(Suppl 1):36-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czarnecki ML, Ferrise AS, Jastrowski Mano KE, Parent/nurse-controlled analgesia for children with developmental delay. Clin J Pain 2008;24(9):817-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voepel-Lewis T, Marinkovic A, Kostrzewa A, The prevalence of and risk factors for adverse events in children receiving patient-controlled analgesia by proxy or patient-controlled analgesia after surgery. Anesth Analg 2008;107(1):70-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bozkurt P, Kaya G, Yeker Y, Effectiveness of morphine via thoracic epidural vs intravenous infusion on postthoracotomy pain and stress response in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2004;14(9):748-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiffer F, Joly A, Wodey E, The effect of preoperative epidural morphine on postoperative analgesia in children. Anesth Analg 2001;93(3):598-600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bozkurt P, Kaya G, Yeker Y. Single-injection lumbar epidural morphine for postoperative analgesia in children: a report of 175 cases. Reg Anesth 1997;22(3):212-17
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suominen PK, Ragg PG, McKinley DF, Intrathecal morphine provides effective and safe analgesia in children after cardiac surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2004;48(7):875-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eschertzhuber S, Hohlrieder M, Keller C, Comparison of high- and low-dose intrathecal morphine for spinal fusion in children. Br J Anaesth 2008;100(4):538-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen KS, Cohen AE, Mermelstein FH, The analgesic efficacy and safety of a novel intranasal morphine formulation (morphine plus chitosan), immediate release oral morphine, intravenous morphine, and placebo in a postsurgical dental pain model. Anesth Analg 2008;107(6):2018-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoker DG, Reber KR, Waltzman LS, Analgesic efficacy and safety of morphine-chitosan nasal solution in patients with moderate to severe pain following orthopedic surgery. Pain Med 2008;9(1):3-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouwmeester NJ, Anderson BJ, Tibboel D, Developmental pharmacokinetics of morphine and its metabolites in neonates, infants and young children. Br J Anaesth 2004;92(2):208-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouwmeester NJ, van den Anker JN, Hop WC, Age- and therapy-related effects on morphine requirements and plasma concentrations of morphine and its metabolites in postoperative infants. Br J Anaesth 2003;90(5):642-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouwmeester NJ, Hop WC, van Dijk M, Postoperative pain in the neonate: age-related differences in morphine requirements and metabolism. Intensive Care Med 2003;29(11):2009-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellu R, de Waal KA, Zanini R. Opioids for neonates receiving mechanical ventilation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;(1):CD004212
   Google Scholar
• Taddio A, Crosdale B, Hogan ME, Safety of morphine in nonintubated infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Clin J Pain 2009;25(5):418-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charney RL, Yan Y, Schootman M, Oxycodone versus codeine for triage pain in children with suspected forearm fracture: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatr Emerg Care 2008;24(9):595-600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams DG, Hatch DJ, Howard RF. Codeine phosphate in paediatric medicine. Br J Anaesth 2001;86(3):413-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams DG, Patel A, Howard RF. Pharmacogenetics of codeine metabolism in an urban population of children and its implications for analgesic reliability. Br J Anaesth 2002;89(6):839-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voronov P, Przybylo HJ, Jagannathan N. Apnea in a child after oral codeine: a genetic variant – an ultra-rapid metabolizer. Paediatr Anaesth 2007;17(7):684-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley C. Hydromorphone for acute and chronic pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;(1):CD003447
   Google Scholar
• Goodarzi M. Comparison of epidural morphine, hydromorphone and fentanyl for postoperative pain control in children undergoing orthopaedic surgery. Paediatr Anaesth 1999;9(5):419-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley C, Wiffen P. A systematic review of hydromorphone in acute and chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 2003;25(2):169-78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robert R, Brack A, Blakeney P, A double-blind study of the analgesic efficacy of oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate and oral morphine in pediatric patients undergoing burn dressing change and tubbing. J Burn Care Rehabil 2003;24(6):351-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lovstad RZ, Stoen R. Postoperative epidural analgesia in children after major orthopaedic surgery. A randomised study of the effect on PONV of two anaesthetic techniques: low and high dose i.v. fentanyl and epidural infusions with and without fentanyl. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2001;45(4):482-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borland M, Jacobs I, King B, A randomized controlled trial comparing intranasal fentanyl to intravenous morphine for managing acute pain in children in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 2007;49(3):335-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miner JR, Kletti C, Herold M, Randomized clinical trial of nebulized fentanyl citrate versus i.v. fentanyl citrate in children presenting to the emergency department with acute pain. Acad Emerg Med 2007;14(10):895-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furyk JS, Grabowski WJ, Black LH. Nebulized fentanyl versus intravenous morphine in children with suspected limb fractures in the emergency department: a randomized controlled trial. Emerg Med Australas 2009;21(3):203-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe T. Intranasal fentanyl for acute pain: techniques to enhance efficacy. Ann Emerg Med 2007;49(5):721-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sammartino M, Garra R, Sbaraglia F, Remifentanil in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2010;20(3):246-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross AK, Davis PJ, Dear Gd GL, Pharmacokinetics of remifentanil in anesthetized pediatric patients undergoing elective surgery or diagnostic procedures. Anesth Analg 2001;93(6):1393-401, table of contents
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tirel O, Chanavaz C, Bansard JY, Effect of remifentanil with and without atropine on heart rate variability and RR interval in children. Anaesthesia 2005;60(10):982-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung CJ, Lee JM, Choi SR, Effect of remifentanil on oculocardiac reflex in paediatric strabismus surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2008;52(9):1273-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford MW, Hickey C, Zaarour C, Development of acute opioid tolerance during infusion of remifentanil for pediatric scoliosis surgery. Anesth Analg 2006;102(6):1662-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel F, Lando A, Aubry C, Experience with remifentanil-sevoflurane balanced anesthesia for abdominal surgery in neonates and children less than 2 years. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18(6):532-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roulleau P, Gall O, Desjeux L, Remifentanil infusion for cleft palate surgery in young infants. Paediatr Anaesth 2003;13(8):701-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joly V, Richebe P, Guignard B, Remifentanil-induced postoperative hyperalgesia and its prevention with small-dose ketamine. Anesthesiology 2005;103(1):147-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelhardt T, Zaarour C, Naser B, Intraoperative low-dose ketamine does not prevent a remifentanil-induced increase in morphine requirement after pediatric scoliosis surgery. Anesth Analg 2008;107(4):1170-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonnell C, Zaarour C, Hull R, Pre-treatment with morphine does not prevent the development of remifentanil-induced hyperalgesia. Can J Anaesth 2008;55(12):813-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aydin ON, Ugur B, Ozgun S, Pain prevention with intraoperative ketamine in outpatient children undergoing tonsillectomy or tonsillectomy and adenotomy. J Clin Anesth 2007;19(2):115-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stubhaug A, Breivik H, Eide PK, Mapping of punctuate hyperalgesia around a surgical incision demonstrates that ketamine is a powerful suppressor of central sensitization to pain following surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997;41(9):1124-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morton NS. Ketamine for procedural sedation and analgesia in pediatric emergency medicine: a UK perspective. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18(1):25-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svenson JE, Abernathy MK. Ketamine for prehospital use: new look at an old drug. Am J Emerg Med 2007;25(8):977-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roelofse JA. The evolution of ketamine applications in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2010;20(3):240-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herd D, Anderson BJ. Ketamine disposition in children presenting for procedural sedation and analgesia in a children's emergency department. Paediatr Anaesth 2007;17(7):622-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung LY, Baillie TA. Comparative pharmacology in the rat of ketamine and its two principal metabolites, norketamine and (Z)-6-hydroxynorketamine. J Med Chem 1986;29(11):2396-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herd DW, Anderson BJ, Keene NA, Investigating the pharmacodynamics of ketamine in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18(1):36-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clements JA, Nimmo WS. Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effect of ketamine in man. Br J Anaesth 1981;53(1):27-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herd DW, Anderson BJ, Holford NH. Modeling the norketamine metabolite in children and the implications for analgesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2007;17(9):831-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin C, Durieux ME. Ketamine and kids: an update. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15(2):91-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfenninger EG, Durieux ME, Himmelseher S. Cognitive impairment after small-dose ketamine isomers in comparison to equianalgesic racemic ketamine in human volunteers. Anesthesiology 2002;96(2):357-66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigtermans M, Dahan A, Mooren R, S(+)-ketamine effect on experimental pain and cardiac output: a population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling study in healthy volunteers. Anesthesiology 2009;111(4):892-903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becke K, Albrecht S, Schmitz B, Intraoperative low-dose S-ketamine has no preventive effects on postoperative pain and morphine consumption after major urological surgery in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15(6):484-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celerier E, Rivat C, Jun Y, Long-lasting hyperalgesia induced by fentanyl in rats: preventive effect of ketamine. Anesthesiology 2000;92(2):465-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCartney CJ, Sinha A, Katz J. A qualitative systematic review of the role of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists in preventive analgesia. Anesth Analg 2004;98(5):1385-400, table of contents
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramaniam K, Subramaniam B, Steinbrook RA. Ketamine as adjuvant analgesic to opioids: a quantitative and qualitative systematic review. Anesth Analg 2004;99(2):482-95, table of contents
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elia N, Tramer MR. Ketamine and postoperative pain–a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials. Pain 2005;113(1-2):61-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcus RJ, Victoria BA, Rushman SC, Comparison of ketamine and morphine for analgesia after tonsillectomy in children. Br J Anaesth 2000;84(6):739-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinall RL, Mayor A. A prospective randomized controlled study of the efficacy of ketamine for postoperative pain relief in children after adenotonsillectomy. Paediatr Anaesth 2001;11(3):333-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elhakim M, Khalafallah Z, El-Fattah HA, Ketamine reduces swallowing-evoked pain after paediatric tonsillectomy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2003;47(5):604-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Flaherty JE, Lin CX. Does ketamine or magnesium affect posttonsillectomy pain in children? Paediatr Anaesth 2003;13(5):413-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dix P, Martindale S, Stoddart PA. Double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial of the effect of ketamine on postoperative morphine consumption in children following appendicectomy. Paediatr Anaesth 2003;13(5):422-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Beer DA, Thomas ML. Caudal additives in children–solutions or problems? Br J Anaesth 2003;90(4):487-98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ansermino M, Basu R, Vandebeek C, Nonopioid additives to local anaesthetics for caudal blockade in children: a systematic review. Paediatr Anaesth 2003;13(7):561-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vranken JH, Troost D, de Haan P, Severe toxic damage to the rabbit spinal cord after intrathecal administration of preservative-free S(+)-ketamine. Anesthesiology 2006;105(4):813-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker SM, Westin BD, Deumens R, Effects of intrathecal ketamine in the neonatal rat: evaluation of apoptosis and long-term functional outcome. Anesthesiology 2010;113(1):147-59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vranken JH, Troost D, Wegener JT, Neuropathological findings after continuous intrathecal administration of S(+)-ketamine for the management of neuropathic cancer pain. Pain 2005;117(1-2):231-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green SM, Cote CJ. Ketamine and neurotoxicity: clinical perspectives and implications for emergency medicine. Ann Emerg Med 2009;54(2):181-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hostetler MA, Davis CO. Prospective age-based comparison of behavioral reactions occurring after ketamine sedation in the ED. Am J Emerg Med 2002;20(5):463-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnweit C, Diana-Zerpa JA, Nahmad MH, Nitrous oxide analgesia for minor pediatric surgical procedures: an effective alternative to conscious sedation? J Pediatr Surg 2004;39(3):495-9; discussion 495-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown SC, Hart G, Chastain DP, Reducing distress for children during invasive procedures: randomized clinical trial of effectiveness of the PediSedate. Paediatr Anaesth 2009;19(8):725-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denman WT, Tuason PM, Ahmed MI, The PediSedate device, a novel approach to pediatric sedation that provides distraction and inhaled nitrous oxide: clinical evaluation in a large case series. Paediatr Anaesth 2007;17(2):162-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuya A, Ito M, Fukao T, The effective time and concentration of nitrous oxide to reduce venipuncture pain in children. J Clin Anesth 2009;21(3):190-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babl FE, Oakley E, Puspitadewi A, Limited analgesic efficacy of nitrous oxide for painful procedures in children. Emerg Med J 2008;25(11):717-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennrikus WL, Simpson RB, Klingelberger CE, Self-administered nitrous oxide analgesia for pediatric fracture reductions. J Pediatr Orthop 1994;14(4):538-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babl FE, Oakley E, Seaman C, High-concentration nitrous oxide for procedural sedation in children: adverse events and depth of sedation. Pediatrics 2008;121(3):e528-32
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babl FE, Puspitadewi A, Barnett P, Preprocedural fasting state and adverse events in children receiving nitrous oxide for procedural sedation and analgesia. Pediatr Emerg Care 2005;21(11):736-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt EL, Baum VC. Nitrous oxide in pediatric anesthesia: friend or foe? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008;21(3):356-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Hartman RE, Izumi Y, Early exposure to common anesthetic agents causes widespread neurodegeneration in the developing rat brain and persistent learning deficits. J Neurosci 2003;23(3):876-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skacel PO, Hewlett AM, Lewis JD, Studies on the haemopoietic toxicity of nitrous oxide in man. Br J Haematol 1983;53(2):189-200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders RD, Weimann J, Maze M. Biologic effects of nitrous oxide: a mechanistic and toxicologic review. Anesthesiology 2008;109(4):707-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anand KJ. Consensus statement for the prevention and management of pain in the newborn. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001;155(2):173-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Batton DG, Barrington KJ, Wallman C. Prevention and management of pain in the neonate: an update. Pediatrics 2006;118(5):2231-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens B, Yamada J, Ohlsson A. Sucrose for analgesia in newborn infants undergoing painful procedures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(1):CD001069
   Google Scholar
• Stevens B, Yamada J, Ohlsson A. Sucrose for analgesia in newborn infants undergoing painful procedures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(3):CD001069
   Google Scholar
• Shah PS, Aliwalas LI, Shah V. Breastfeeding or breast milk for procedural pain in neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;3:CD004950
   Google Scholar
• Uman LS, Chambers CT, McGrath PJ, A systematic review of randomized controlled trials examining psychological interventions for needle-related procedural pain and distress in children and adolescents: an abbreviated cochrane review. J Pediatr Psychol 2008;33(8):842-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uman LS, Chambers CT, McGrath PJ, Psychological interventions for needle-related procedural pain and distress in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;(4):CD005179
   Google Scholar
• Rugyte D, Kokki H. Intravenous ketoprofen as an adjunct to patient-controlled analgesia morphine in adolescents with thoracic surgery: a placebo controlled double-blinded study. Eur J Pain 2007;11(6):694-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paediatric Formulary Committee. BNF for Children 2009, BMJ Publishing Group, RPS Publishing, and RCPCH Publications, London
   Google Scholar