773
Views
37
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Statins can improve proteinuria and glomerular filtration rate loss in chronic kidney disease patients, further reducing cardiovascular risk. Fact or fiction?

, , &

Bibliography

  • Levey AS, Coresh J, Balk E, et al. National Kidney Foundation. National Kidney Foundation practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:137-47
  • Locatelli F, Pozzoni P, Tentori F, et al. Epidemiology of cardiovascular risk in patients with chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18(Suppl 7):vii2-9
  • Iseki K. Chronic kidney disease in Japan. Intern Med 2008;47:681-9
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and associated risk factors − United States, 1999-2004. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:161-5
  • Orlić L, Mikolasevic I, Bagic Z, et al. Chronic kidney disease and nonalcoholic Fatty liver disease-is there a link? Gastroenterol Res Pract 2014;2014:847539
  • Vanholder R, Massy Z, Argiles A, et al. European Uremic Toxin Work Group. Chronic kidney disease as cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005;20:1048-56
  • Catapano AL, Reiner Z, De Backer G, et al. European Society of Cardiology (ESC); European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias The Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Atherosclerosis 2011;217:3-46
  • Snyder S, Pendergraph B. Detection and evaluation of chronic kidney disease. Am Fam Physician 2005;72:1723-32
  • Agrawal V, Marinescu V, Agarwal M, McCullough PA. Cardiovascular implications of proteinuria: an indicator of chronic kidney disease. Nat Rev Cardiol 2009;6:301-11
  • Cravedi P, Remuzzi G. Pathophysiology of proteinuria and its value as an outcome measure in chronic kidney disease. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2013;76:516-23
  • Currie G, Delles C. Proteinuria and its relation to cardiovascular disease. Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis 2013;7:13-24
  • Savarese G, Dei Cas A, Rosano G, et al. Reduction of albumin urinary excretion is associated with reduced cardiovascular events in hypertensive and/or diabetic patients. A meta-regression analysis of 32 randomized trials. Int J Cardiol 2014;172:403-10
  • Deckert T, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Borch-Johnsen K, et al. Albuminuria reflects widespread vascular damage. The Steno hypothesis. Diabetologia 1989;32:219-26
  • Bruno G, Merletti F, Bargero G, et al. Estimated glomerular filtration rate, albuminuria and mortality in type 2 diabetes: the Casale Monferrato study. Diabetologia 2007;50:941-8
  • Ninomiya T, Perkovic V, de Galan BE, et al. Albuminuria and kidney function independently predict cardiovascular and renal outcomes in diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:1813-21
  • Araki S, Haneda M, Koya D, et al. Reduction in microalbuminuria as an integrated indicator for renal and cardiovascular risk reduction in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2007;56:1727-30
  • Currie G, McKay G, Delles C. Biomarkers in diabetic nephropathy: Present and future. World J Diabetes 2014;5:763-76
  • UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ 1998;317:703-13
  • The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med 1993;329:977-86
  • Agarwal R. Effects of statins on renal function. Am J Cardiol 2006;97:748-55
  • Ozsoy RC, Koopman MG, Kastelein JJ, et al. The acute effect of atorvastatin on proteinuria in patients with chronic glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 2005;63:245-9
  • Douglas K, O’Malley PG, Jackson JL. Meta-analysis: the effect of statins on albuminuria. Ann Intern Med 2006;145:117-24
  • Nakamura T, Ushiyama C, Hirokawa K, et al. Effect of cerivastatin on urinary albumin excretion and plasma endothelin-1 concentrations in type 2 diabetes patients with microalbuminuria and dyslipidemia. Am J Nephrol 2001;21:449-54
  • de Zeeuw D, Anzalone DA, Cain VA, et al. Renal effects of atorvastatin and rosuvastatin in patients with diabetes who have progressive renal disease (PLANET I): a randomised clinical trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2015;3:181-90
  • Alsheikh-Ali AA, Ambrose MS, Kuvin JT, et al. The safety of rosuvastatin as used in common clinical practice: a post-marketing analysis. Circulation 2005;111:3051-7
  • Bianchi S, Bigazzi R, Caiazza A, et al. A controlled, prospective study of the effects of atorvastatin on proteinuria and progression of kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;41:565-70
  • Geng Q, Ren J, Song J, et al. Meta-analysis of the effect of statins on renal function. Am J Cardiol 2014;114:562-70
  • Jensen JS, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Strandgaard S, et al. Arterial hypertension, microalbuminuria, and risk of ischemic heart disease. Hypertension 2000;35:898-903
  • Peterson JC, Adler S, Burkart JM, et al. Blood pressure control, proteinuria, and the progression of renal disease. The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:754-62
  • Palmer BF. Proteinuria as a therapeutic target in patients with chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol 2007;27:287-93
  • KDOQI clinical practice guidelines and clinical practice recommendations for diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2007;49(Suppl 2):S1-S179
  • Bakris GL. Slowing nephropathy progression: focus on proteinuria reduction. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3(Suppl 1):S3-10
  • Lee TM, Lin MS, Tsai CH, et al. Add-on and withdrawal effect of pravastatin on proteinuria in hypertensive patients treated with AT receptor blockers. Kidney Int 2005;68:779-87
  • Lee TM, Su SF, Tsai CH. Effect of pravastatin on proteinuria in patients with well-controlled hypertension. Hypertension 2002;40:67-73
  • Zhou MS, Jaimes EA, Raij L. Atorvastatin prevents end-organ injury in salt-sensitive hypertension: role of eNOS and oxidant stress. Hypertension 2004;44:186-90
  • Nakamura T, Sato E, Fujiwara N, et al. Atorvastatin reduces proteinuria in non-diabetic chronic kidney disease patients partly via lowering serum levels of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Oxid Med Cell Longev 2010;3:304-7
  • Zhou MS, Schuman IH, Jaimes EA, et al. Renoprotection by statins is linked to a decrease in renal oxidative stress, TGF-beta, and fibronectin with concomitant increase in nitric oxide bioavailability. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2008;295:F53-9
  • Abe M, Maruyama N, Okada K, et al. Effects of lipid-lowering therapy with rosuvastatin on kidney function and oxidative stress in patients with diabetic nephropathy. J Atheroscler Thromb 2011;18:1018-28
  • Nitta K. Clinical assessment and management of dyslipidemia in patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin Exp Nephrol 2012;16:522-9
  • Fink HA, Ishani A, Taylor BC, et al. Screening for, monitoring, and treatment of chronic kidney disease stages 1 to 3: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and for an American College of Physicians Clinical Practice Guideline. Ann Intern Med 2012;156:570-81
  • Mudagal M, Patel J, Nagalakshmi N, et al. Renoprotective effects of combining ACE inhibitors and statins in experimental diabetic rats. Daru 2011;19:322-5
  • Mallappallil M, Friedman EA, Delano BG, et al. Chronic kidney disease in the elderly: evaluation and management. Clin Pract (Lond) 2014;11:525-35
  • Navaneethan SD, Pansini F, Perkovic V, et al. HMGCoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for people with chronic kidney disease not requiring dialysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;2: CD007784
  • Palmer SC, Navaneethan SD, Craig JC, et al. HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for people with chronic kidney disease not requiring dialysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;5:CD007784
  • Tonelli M, Isles C, Craven T, et al. Effect of pravastatin on rate of kidney function loss in people with or at risk for coronary disease. Circulation 2005;112:171-8
  • Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, et al. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin in 5963 people with diabetes: A randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361:2005-16
  • Athyros VG, Mikhailidis DP, Papageorgiou AA, et al. The effect of statins versus untreated dyslipidemia on renal function in patients with coronary heart disease: A subgroup analysis of the Greek atorvastatin and coronary heart disease evaluation (GREACE) study. J Clin Pathol 2004;57:728-34
  • Athyros VG, Mikhailidis DP, Liberopoulos EN, et al. Effect of statin treatment on renal function and serum uric acid levels and their relation to vascular events in patients with coronary heart disease and metabolic syndrome: A subgroup analysis of the GREek Atorvastatin and Coronary heart disease Evaluation (GREACE) Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007;22:118-27
  • Athyros VG, Mitsiou EK, Tziomalos K, et al. Impact of managing atherogenic dyslipidemia on cardiovascular outcome across different stages of diabetic nephropathy. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010;11:723-30
  • Shepherd J, Kastelein JJ, Bittner V, et al. Treating to New Targets Investigators. Effect of intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin on renal function in patients with coronary heart disease: the Treating to New Targets (TNT) study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;2:1131-9
  • Shepherd J, Kastelein JJ, Bittner V, et al. TNT (Treating to New Targets) Investigators. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and chronic kidney disease: the TNT (Treating to New Targets) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:1448-54
  • Colhoun HM Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, et al. CARDS Investigators. Effects of atorvastatin on kidney outcomes and cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes: an analysis from the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS). Am J Kidney Dis 2009;54:810-19
  • Athyros VG, Hatzitolios AI, Karagiannis A, et al. IMPERATIVE Collaborative Group. IMproving the imPlemEntation of cuRrent guidelines for the mAnagement of major coronary hearT disease rIsk factors by multifactorial interVEntion. The IMPERATIVE renal analysis. Arch Med Sci 2011;7:984-92
  • Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, Ganotakis ES, et al. Assessing The Treatment Effect in Metabolic syndrome without Perceptible diabeTes (ATTEMPT) Collaborative Group. Association between the changes in renal function and serum uric acid levels during multifactorial intervention and clinical outcome in patients with metabolic syndrome. A post hoc analysis of the ATTEMPT study. Curr Med Res Opin 2011;27:1659-68
  • Sharp Collaborative Group. Study of Heart and Renal Protection (SHARP): randomized trial to assess the effects of lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol among 9,438 patients with chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J 2010;160:785-94
  • Navaneethan SD, Hegbrant J, Strippoli GF. Role of statins in preventing adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2011;20:146-52
  • Athyros VG, Tziomalos K, Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP. Statins and cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis. The AURORA results suggest the need for earlier intervention. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2009;7:264-6
  • Strippoli GF, Navaneethan SD, Johnson DW, et al. Effects of statins in patients with chronic kidney disease: meta-analysis and meta-regression of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2008;336:645-51
  • Atthobari J, Brantsma AH, Gansevoort RT, et al. PREVEND study group. The effect of statins on urinary albumin excretion and glomerular filtration rate: results from both a randomized clinical trial and an observational cohort study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006;21:3106-14
  • Rahman M, Baimbridge C, Davis BR, et al. ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Progression of kidney disease in moderately hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients randomized to pravastatin versus usual care: a report from the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). Am J Kidney Dis 2008;52:412-24
  • ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. Major outcomes in moderately hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients randomized to pravastatin vs usual care: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT-LLT). JAMA 2002;288:2998-3007
  • Fellström B, Holdaas H, Jardine AG, et al. AURORA Study Group. Cardiovascular disease in patients with renal disease: the role of statins. Curr Med Res Opin 2009;25:271-85
  • Alnaeb ME, Youssef F, Mikhailidis DP, et al. Short-term lipid-lowering treatment with atorvastatin improves renal function but not renal blood flow indices in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Angiology 2006;57:65-71
  • Wanner C, Krane V, März W, et al. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2005;353:238-48
  • Himmelfarb J, Stenvinkel P, Ikizler TA, Hakim RM. The elephant in uremia: oxidant stress as a unifying concept of cardiovascular disease in uremia. Kidney Int 2002;62:1524-38
  • Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, Kakafika A, et al. Statins and renal function. Is the compound and dose making a difference? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007;22:963-4
  • Efstratiadis G, Tziomalos K, Mikhailidis DP, et al. Atherogenesis in renal patients: a model of vascular disease? Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2008;6:93-107
  • Fellström BC, Jardine AG, Schmieder RE, et al. Rosuvastatin and cardiovascular events in patients undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2009;360:1395-407
  • Holdaas H, Holme I, Schmieder RE, et al. AURORA study group. Rosuvastatin in diabetic hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2011;22:1335-41
  • Youssef F, Seifalian AM, Jagroop IA, et al. The early effect of lipid-lowering treatment on carotid and femoral intima media thickness (IMT). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2002;23:358-64
  • Giacoppo D, Capodanno D, Capranzano P, et al. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of preprocedural statin administration for reducing contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary catheterization. Am J Cardiol 2014;114:541-8
  • Kasahara M, Nakagawa T, Yokoi H, et al. Do statins play a role in renoprotection? Clin Exp Nephrol 2014;18:282-5
  • Dormuth CR, Hemmelgarn BR, Paterson JM, et al. Canadian Network for Observational Drug Effect Studies. Use of high potency statins and rates of admission for acute kidney injury: multicenter, retrospective observational analysis of administrative databases. BMJ 2013;346:f880
  • Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C. Unintended effects of statins in men and women in England and Wales: population based cohort study using the QResearch database. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005809
  • Katsiki N, Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, et al. Contrast-Induced Nephropathy: An ‘All or None’ Phenomenon? Angiology 2014; pii: 0003319714550309. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Molnar AO, Garg AX. ACP Journal Club. Early high-dose rosuvastatin prevented contrast-induced acute kidney injury in non-ST-elevation ACS. Ann Intern Med 2014;160:JC9
  • Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, Katsiki N, et al. Statins in patients with renal dysfunction. Am J Cardiol 2012;109:1537
  • Mikhailidis DP, Athyros VG. Acute kidney injury: Short-term statin therapy for prevention of contrast-induced AKI. Nat Rev Nephrol 2014;10:8-9
  • Hoshi T, Sato A, Kakefuda Y, et al. Preventive effect of statin pretreatment on contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary angioplasty: propensity score analysis from a multicenter registry. Int J Cardiol 2014;171:243-9
  • Gandhi S, Mosleh W, Abdel-Qadir H, Farkouh ME. Statins and contrast-induced acute kidney injury with coronary angiography. Am J Med 2014;127:987-1000
  • Athyros VG, Katsiki N, Tziomalos K, et al. Preventing Cardio-renal Syndrome Rather than Treating It: Could Statins Play A Role? Open Cardiovasc Med J 2011;5:226-30
  • Ridker PM, Cannon CP, Morrow D, et al. Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 (PROVE IT-TIMI 22) Investigators. C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N Engl J Med 2005;352:20-8
  • Sarma A, Cannon CP, de Lemos J, et al. The incidence of kidney injury for patients treated with a high-potency versus moderate-potency statin regimen after an acute coronary syndrome. J Am Heart Assoc 2014;3:e000784
  • Bangalore S, Fayyad R, Hovingh GK, et al. Treating to New Targets Steering Committee and Investigators. Statin and the risk of renal-related serious adverse events: Analysis from the IDEAL, TNT, CARDS, ASPEN, SPARCL, and other placebo-controlled trials. Am J Cardiol 2014;113:2018-20
  • Marenzi G, Cabiati A, Bertoli SV, et al. Incidence and relevance of acute kidney injury in patients hospitalized with acute coronary syndromes. Am J Cardiol 2013;111:816-22
  • Shacham Y, Leshem-Rubinow E, Steinvil A, et al. Renal impairment according to acute kidney injury network criteria among ST elevation myocardial infarction patients undergoing primary percutaneous intervention: a retrospective observational study. Clin Res Cardiol 2014;103:525-32
  • Leoncini M, Toso A, Maioli M, et al. Early high-dose rosuvastatin for contrast-induced nephropathy prevention in acute coronary syndrome: results from the PRATO-ACS Study (Protective Effect of Rosuvastatin and Antiplatelet Therapy On contrast-induced acute kidney injury and myocardial damage in patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome). J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63:71-9
  • Li W, Fu X, Wang Y, et al. Beneficial effects of high-dose atorvastatin pretreatment on renal function in patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing emergency percutaneous coronary intervention. Cardiology 2012;122:195-202
  • Patti G, Ricottini E, Nusca A, et al. Short-term, high-dose atorvastatin pretreatment to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (from the ARMYDA-CIN [atorvastatin for reduction of myocardial damage during angioplasty--contrast-induced nephropathy] trial. Am J Cardiol 2011;108:1-7
  • Wu H, Li D, Fang M, et al. Meta-analysis of short-term high versus low doses of atorvastatin preventing contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary angiography/percutaneous coronary intervention. J Clin Pharmacol 2015;55:123-31
  • Han Y, Zhu G, Han L, et al. Short-term rosuvastatin therapy for prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63:62-70
  • Ukaigwe A, Karmacharya P, Mahmood M, et al. Meta-analysis on efficacy of statins for prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Am J Cardiol 2014;114:1295-302
  • Marenzi G, Cosentino N, Werba JP, et al. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on statins for the prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients with and without acute coronary syndromes. Int J Cardiol 2015;183C:47-53
  • Su J, Zou W, Cai W, et al. Atorvastatin ameliorates contrast medium-induced renal tubular cell apoptosis in diabetic rats via suppression of Rho-kinase pathway. Eur J Pharmacol 2014;723:15-22
  • Wu K, Lei W, Tian J, et al. Atorvastatin treatment attenuates renal injury in an experimental model of ischemia-reperfusion in rats. BMC Nephrol 2014;15:14
  • Kang DH, Nakagawa T, Feng L, et al. A role for uric acid in the progression of renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:2888-97
  • Tsouli SG, Liberopoulos EN, Mikhailidis DP, et al. Elevated serum uric acid levels in metabolic syndrome: an active component or an innocent bystander? Metabolism 2006;55:1293-301
  • Athyros VG, Mikhailidis DP. Uric acid, chronic kidney disease and type 2 diabetes: a cluster of vascular risk factors. J Diabetes Complications 2014;28:122-3
  • Bickel C, Rupprecht HJ, Blankenberg S, et al. Serum uric acid as an independent predictor of mortality in patients with angiographically proven coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 2002;89:12-17
  • Katsiki N, Doumas M, Athyros VG, et al. Hyperuricemia as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2015;13:19-20
  • Fang J, Alderman MH. Serum uric acid and cardiovascular mortality the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971-1992. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 2000;283:2404-10
  • Katsiki N, Karagiannis A, Athyros VG, et al. Hyperuricaemia: more than just a cause of gout? J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 2013;14:397-402
  • Kose E, An T, Kikkawa A, et al. Effects on serum uric acid by difference of the renal protective effects with atorvastatin and rosuvastatin in chronic kidney disease patients. Biol Pharm Bull 2014;37:226-31
  • Zhang QL, Rothenbacher D. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in population-based studies: systematic review. BMC Public Health 2008;8:117
  • Braun L, Sood V, Hogue S, et al. High burden and unmet patient needs in chronic kidney disease. Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis 2012;5:151-63
  • Stevens LA, Li S, Wang C, et al. Prevalence of CKD and comorbid illness in elderly patients in the United States: results from the Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP). Am J Kidney Dis 2010;55(3 Suppl 2):S23-33
  • Athyros VG, Katsiki N, Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP. Editorial: should chronic kidney disease be considered as a coronary heart disease equivalent? Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2012;10:374-7
  • Harper CR, Jacobson TA. Managing dyslipidemia in chronic kidney disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:2375-84
  • Liu M, Li XC, Lu L, et al. Cardiovascular disease and its relationship with chronic kidney disease. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2014;18:2918-26
  • Scarpioni R, Ricardi M, Albertazzi V, et al. Treatment of dyslipidemia in chronic kidney disease: Effectiveness and safety of statins. World J Nephrol 2012;1:184-94
  • Walker DB, Walker TJ, Jacobson TA. Chronic kidney disease and statins: improving cardiovascular outcomes. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2009;11:301-8
  • Nikolic D, Nikfar S, Salari P, et al. Lipid and Blood Pressure Meta-Analysis Collaboration Group. Effects of statins on lipid profile in chronic kidney disease patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Curr Med Res Opin 2013;29:435-51
  • Athyros VG, Katsiki N, Karagiannis A, et al. Short-, mid-, and long-term benefits of peri-procedural high-intensity statin administration in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Curr Med Res Opin 2015;31:191-5
  • Athyros VG, Katsiki N, Karagiannis A, et al. Stage of chronic kidney disease and severity of coronary heart disease manifestation. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012;13:457-60
  • Athyros VG, Tziomalos K, Karagiannis A, et al. Statins and cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis. The AURORA results suggest the need for earlier intervention. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2009;7:264-6
  • Barylski M, Nikfar S, Mikhailidis DP, et al. Lipid and Blood Pressure Meta-Analysis Collaboration Group. Statins decrease all-cause mortality only in CKD patients not requiring dialysis therapy--a meta-analysis of 11 randomized controlled trials involving 21,295 participants. Pharmacol Res 2013;72:35-44
  • Nikolic D, Banach M, Nikfar S, et al. Lipid and Blood Pressure Meta-Analysis Collaboration Group. A meta-analysis of the role of statins on renal outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease. Is the duration of therapy important? Int J Cardiol 2013;168:5437-47
  • Koren MJ, Davidson MH, Wilson DJ, et al. ALLIANCE Investigators. Focused atorvastatin therapy in managed-care patients with coronary heart disease and CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 2009;53:741-50
  • Amarenco P, Callahan A3rd, Campese VM, et al. Effect of high-dose atorvastatin on renal function in subjects with stroke or transient ischemic attack in the SPARCL trial. Stroke 2014;45:2974-82
  • Kidney Disease, Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl 2012;3:1-150
  • Kimura K, Shimano H, Yokote K, et al. Effects of pitavastatin (LIVALO tablet) on the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in hypercholesterolemic patients with chronic kidney disease. Sub-analysis of the LIVALO Effectiveness and Safety (LIVES) Study. J Atheroscler Thromb 2010;17:601-9
  • Jin K, Park BS, Kim YW, Vaziri ND. Plasma PCSK9 in nephrotic syndrome and in peritoneal dialysis: a cross-sectional study. Am J Kidney Dis 2014;63:584-9
  • Abujrad H, Mayne J, Ruzicka M, et al. Chronic kidney disease on hemodialysis is associated with decreased serum PCSK9 levels. Atherosclerosis 2014;233:123-9
  • Blom DJ, Hala T, Bolognese M, et al. DESCARTES Investigators. A 52-week placebo-controlled trial of evolocumab in hyperlipidemia. N Engl J Med 2014;370:1809-19

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.