Review of the current management of atrial fibrillation

Bibliography

• FUSTER V, RYDEN LE, ASINGER RWet a/.: ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines and Policy Conferences (Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation) developed in collaboration with the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Circulation (2001) 104(17):2118–2150.
   Google Scholar
• ••An excellent review covering all aspects of AE
   Google Scholar
• FEINBERG WM, BLACKSHEAR JL,LAUPACIS A, KRONMAL R, HART RG: Prevalence, age distribution, and gender of patients with atrial fibrillation. Analysis and implications. Arch. Intern. Med. (1995) 155(5):469–473.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •A good review of epidemiology of AE
   Google Scholar
• WIJFFELS MC, KIRCHHOF CJ, DORLAND R, ALLESSIE MA: Atrial fibrillation begets atrial fibrillation. A study in awake chronically instrumented goats. Circulation (1995) 92(7):1954–1968.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••A landmark paper in basicpathophysiology in an animal model of AE
   Google Scholar
• HOBBS WJ, VAN GELDER IC, FITZPATRICK AP, CRIJNS HJ, GARRATT CJ: The role of atrial electrical remodeling in the progression of focal atrial ectopy to persistent atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (1999) 10(6):866–870.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MORILLO CA, KLEIN GJ, JONES DL, GUIRAUDON CM: Chronic rapid atrial pacing. Structural, functional, and electrophysiological characteristics of a new model of sustained atrial fibrillation. Circulation (1995) 91(5):1588–1595.
   Google Scholar
• ALLESSIE MA, BOYDEN PA, CAMM AJ et al.: Pathophysiology and prevention of atrial fibrillation. Circulation (2001) 103(5):769–777.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••An excellent review of current concepts ofpathophysiology of AE
   Google Scholar
• SHIMIZU A, CENTURION OA: Electrophysiological properties of the human atrium in atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc. Res. (2002) 54(2):302–314.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• YUE L, FENG J, GASPO R et al.: Ionic remodeling underlying action potential changes in a canine model of atrial fibrillation. Circ. Res. (1997) 81(4):512–525.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •An important early study linking changes to ion channels with electrophysiological changes in an animal model of AE
   Google Scholar
• GRAMMER JB, BOSCH REKUHLKAMP V, SEIPEL L: Molecular remodeling of Kv4.3 potassium channels in human atrial fibrillation. I Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (2000) 11(6):626–633.
   Google Scholar
• •Associated alterations in gene expresssion with human AE
   Google Scholar
• GRAMMER JB, ZENG X, BOSCH REKUHLKAMP V: Atrial L-type Ca2+-channel, beta-adrenorecptor, and 5-hydroxytryptamine Type 4 receptor mRNAs in human atrial fibrillation. Basic Res. Cardiol (2001) 96(1):82–90.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Associated molecular changes seen in animal models with human AE
   Google Scholar
• VAN WAGONER DR, POND AL, LAMORGESE M et al: Atrial L-type Ca2+ currents and human atrial fibrillation. Circ. Res. (1999) 85(5):428–436.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •An important early study linking animal and human research in AF in particular with regard to intracellular Ca2' overload concept and AE
   Google Scholar
• GOETTE A, HONEYCUTT C, LANGBERG JJ: Electrical remodeling in atrial fibrillation. Time course and mechanisms. Circulation (1996) 94(11):2968–2974.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •An animal study also linking Ca2' overload to atrial electrical remodelling.
   Google Scholar
• BOSCH RE NATTEL S: Cellularelectrophysiology of atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc. Res. (2002) 54(2):259–269.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •A good review of the topic.
   Google Scholar
• JALIFE J, BERENFELD 0,MANSOUR M: Mother rotors and fibrillatory conduction: a mechanism of atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc. Res. (2002) 54(2):204–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A good review of an important proposed mechanism of AE
   Google Scholar
• HAISSAGUERRE M, JAIS P, SHAH DC et al.: Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl. I Med. (1998) 339(10):659–666.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••A landmark observation and study whichled to the paradigm shift in treatment focus for AF towards radiofrequency ablation of these triggers for AE
   Google Scholar
• CHEN SA, HSIEH MH, TAI CT et al: Initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating from the pulmonary veins: electrophysiological characteristics, pharmacological responses, and effects of radiofrequency ablation. Circulation (1999) 100(18):1879–1886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••An important study further identifying thepulmonary vein ectopy as a trigger for AF and establishing their elimination as a potential cure for AF.
   Google Scholar
• FALK RH: Atrial fibrillation. N Engl. Med. (2001) 344(14):1067–1078.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A good general review of all aspects of AE
   Google Scholar
• WOLLF L: Familial auricular fibrillation. N Engl. J. Med. (1943) 229:396–398.
   Google Scholar
• GOULD WL: Auricular fibrillation: report on a study of a familial tendency, 1920-1956. Arch. Intern. Med. (1957) 100:916.
   Google Scholar
• BRUGADA R, TAPSCOTT T, CZERNUSZEWICZ GZ et al.: Identification of a genetic locus for familial atrial fibrillation. N Engl. J. Med. (1997) 336(13):905–911.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important study identifying chromosomal abnormalities asscoiated with familial AE 1895
   Google Scholar
• SILVERMAN ME: From rebellious palpitations to the discovery of auricular fibrillation: contributions of Mackenzie: Lewis and Einthoven. Am. I Cardiol (1994) 73(5):384–389.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CHUGH SS, BLACKSHEAR JL, SHEN WK, HAMMILL SC, GERSH BJ: Epidemiology and natural history of atrial fibrillation: clinical implications. Am. Coll. Cardiol (2001) 37(2):371–378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A good review of the topic.
   Google Scholar
• BRAUNWALD E: Shattuck lecture-cardiovascular medicine at the turn of the millennium: triumphs, concerns, and opportunities. N Engl. I Med. (1997) 337(19):1360–1369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WOLF PA, BENJAMIN EJ,BELANGER AJ et al.: Secular trends in the prevalence of atrial fibrillation: The Framingham Study. Am. Heart]. (1996) 131(4):790–795.
   Google Scholar
• •Important data on the prevalence of AF from the Framingham cohort.
   Google Scholar
• FLEGEL KM, SHIPLEY MJ, ROSE G: Risk of stroke in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation. Lancet (1987) 1(8532):526–529.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• VAIDYA PN, BHOSLEY PN, RAO DB, LUISADA AA: Tachyarrhythmias in old age. J. Am. Ceriatr. Soc. (1976) 24(9):412–414.
   Google Scholar
• WOLF PA, DAWBER TR, THOMAS HE Jr, KANNEL WB: Epidemiologic assessment of chronic atrial fibrillation and risk of stroke: the Framingham study. Neurology (1978) 28(10):973–977.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important observation establishing AF as a risk factor for cerebral stroke.
   Google Scholar
• OSTRANDER LD Jr BRANDT RL, KJELSBERG MO, EPSTEIN FH: Electrocardiographic findings among the adult population of a total natural community: Tecumsch: Michigan. Circulation (1965) 31:888–898.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PSATY BM, MANOLIO TA,KULLER LH et al.: Incidence of and risk factors for atrial fibrillation in older adults.Circulation (1997) 96(7):2455–2461.
   Google Scholar
• WOLF PA, ABBOTT RD, KANNEL WB: Atrial fibrillation: a major contributor to stroke in the elderly. The Framingham Study. Arch. Intern. Med. (1987) 147(9):1561–1564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Further epidemiological data from the Framingham cohort establishing AF as a major risk factor for cerebral stroke.
   Google Scholar
• KRAHN AD, MANFREDA J, TATE RB, MATHEWSON FA, CUDDY TE: The natural history of atrial fibrillation: incidence, risk factors, and prognosis in the Manitoba Follow-up Study. Am. I Med. (1995) 98(5):476–484.
   Google Scholar
• PAGE RL, WILKINSON WE, CLAIR WK, MCCARTHY EA, PRITCHETT EL: Asymptomatic arrhythmias in patients with symptomatic paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Circulation (1994) 89(1):224–227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FURBERG CD, PSATY BM,MANOLIO TA et al.: Prevalence of atrial fibrillation in elderly subjects (the Cardiovascular Health Study). Am. Cardiol (1994) 74(3):236–241.
   Google Scholar
• BENJAMIN EJ, LEVY D, VAZIRI SM et al.: Independent risk factors for atrial fibrillation in a population-based cohort. The Framingham Heart Study. JAMA (1994) 271(11):840–844.
   Google Scholar
• •Important epidemiological data to establish risk factors for AE
   Google Scholar
• LEVY S, BREITHARDT G,CAMPBELL RW et al.: Atrial fibrillation: current knowledge and recommendations for management. Working Group on Arrhythmias of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur: Heart.! (1998) 19(9):1294–1320.
   Google Scholar
• LEVY S, NOVELLA E RICARD P, PAGANELLI F: Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a need for classification. I Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (1995) 6(1):69–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LEVY S: Classification system of atrial fibrillation. Carr: Opin. Cardiol (2000) 15(1):54–57.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •An important clinical classification system for AE
   Google Scholar
• KOPECKY SL, GERSH BJ,MCGOON MD et al.: The natural history of lone atrial fibrillation. A population-based study over three decades. N Engl.' Med. (1987) 317(11):669–674.
   Google Scholar
• •An important study investigating lone AF and its management.
   Google Scholar
• WOLF PA, ABBOTT RD, KANNEL WB: Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: the Framingham Study. Stroke (1991) 22(8):983–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A study providing further data to support stroke prophylaxis in elderly with AE
   Google Scholar
• Risk factors for stroke and efficacy ofantithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch. Intern. Med. (1994) 154(13):1449–1457.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •A good analysis of data supporting warfarin use in stroke prevention in AE
   Google Scholar
• KANNEL WB, ABBOTT RD, SAVAGE DD, MCNAMARA PM: Coronary heart disease and atrial fibrillation: the Framingham Study. Am. Heart (1983) 106(2):389–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DRIES DL, EXNER DV, GERSH BJ et al: Atrial fibrillation is associated with an increased risk for mortality and heart failure progression in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction: a retrospective analysis of the SOLVD trials. Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1998) 32(3):695–703.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important observation associating AF with progression of LV failure.
   Google Scholar
• BENJAMIN EJ, WOLF PA,D'AGOSTINO RB et al: Impact of atrial fibrillation on the risk of death: the Framingham Heart Study.Circulation (1998) 98(10):946–952.
   Google Scholar
• •Important in establishing AF as an independent predictor of mortality.
   Google Scholar
• SUTTORP MJ, KINGMA JH,JESSURUN ER et al: The value of class IC antiarrhythmic drugs for acute conversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or flutter to sinus rhythm. I Am. Coll. Cardiol (1990) 16(7):1722–1727.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •A study of propafenone versus flecainide.
   Google Scholar
• BORGEAT A, GOY JJ, MAENDLY R et al.: Flecainide versus quinidine for conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Am. I Cardiol (1986) 58(6)496–498.
   Google Scholar
• VAUGHAN-WILLIAMS EM:A classification of antiarrhythmic actionsreassessed after a decade of new drugs. Clin. Pharmacol (1984) 24(4):129–147.
   Google Scholar
• •An important classification system for antiarrhythmics, universally adopted.
   Google Scholar
• LEVY S: Pharmacologic management ofatrial fibrillation: current therapeutic strategies. Am. Heart" (2001) 141(2 Supp1.):S15–S21.
   Google Scholar
• •A good review of the topic.
   Google Scholar
• CAPUCCI A, BORIANI G, RUBINO I et al.: A controlled study on oral propafenone versus digoxin plus quinidine in converting recent onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Int. Cardiol (1994) 43(3):305–313.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ZEHENDER M, HOHNLOSER S, MULLER B, MEINERTZ T, JUST H: Effects of amiodarone versus quinidine and verapamil in patients with chronic atrial
   Google Scholar
• ••fibrillation: results of a comparative study and a 2-year follow-up. I Am. Coll Cardiol (1992) 19(5):1054–1059.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NACCARELLI GV, DORIAN P, HOHNLOSER SH, COUMEL P: Prospective comparison of flecainide versus quinidine for the treatment of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation/flutter. The Flecainide Multicenter Atrial Fibrillation Study Group. Am.j Cardiol (1996) 77(3):53A-59A.
   Google Scholar
• •A trial comparing flecaninide to quinidine and fmding superiority of flecainide in paroxysmal AE
   Google Scholar
• VAN WIJK LM, DEN HELIER P,CRIJNS HJ, VAN GILST WH, LIE KI: Flecainide versus quinidine in the prevention of paroxysms of atrial fibrillation.Cardiovasc. Pharmacol (1989) 13(1):32–36.
   Google Scholar
• COPLEN SE, ANTMAN EM,BERLIN JA, HEWITT P, CHALMERS TC: Efficacy and safety of quinidine therapy for maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion. A meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Circulation (1990) 82(4):1106–1116.
   Google Scholar
• •An important meta-analysis suggesting quinidine may be associated with increased mortality compared with placebo post-DCR.
   Google Scholar
• MORGANROTH J, GOIN JE:Quinidine-related mortality in the short-to-medium-term treatment of ventricular arrhythmias. A meta-analysis.Circulation (1991) 84(5):1977–1983.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important meta-analysis suggesting an increased mortality profile of quinidine compared with other Class I drugs.
   Google Scholar
• BOUDONAS G, LEFKOS N, EFTHYMIADIS AP, STYLIADIS IG, TSAPAS G: Intravenous administration of diltiazem in the treatment of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Acta Cardiol (1995) 50(2):125–134.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CRIJNS HJ, GOSSELINK AT, LIE KI: Propaffinone versus disopyramide for maintenance of sinus rhythm after electrical cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation: a randomized, double-blind study. PRODIS Study Group. Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther. (1996) 10(2):145–152.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NAKAZAWA H, LYTHALL DA, NOH J et al.: Is there a place for the late cardioversion of atrial fibrillation? A long-term follow-up study of patients with post-thyrotoxic atrial fibrillation. Ear: Heart-J. (2000) 21(4):327–333.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MADRID AH, MORO C,MARIN-HUERTA E et al: Comparison of flecainide and procainamide in cardioversion of atrial fibrillation.Eur. Heart J. (1993) 14(8):1127–1131.
   Google Scholar
• •A clinical trial establishing superiority for flecainide over procainamide in acute AF cardioversion.
   Google Scholar
• VOLGMAN AS, CARBERRY PA, STAMBLER B et al.: Conversion efficacy and safety of intravenous ibutilide compared with intravenous procainamide in patients with atrial flutter or fibrillation.I. Am. Coll Cardiol (1998) 31(6):1414–1419.
   Google Scholar
• •A trial establishing the efficacy and safety of ibutilide.
   Google Scholar
• AZPITARTE J, ALVAREZ M, BAUN 0 et al.: Value of single oral loading dose of propafenone in converting recent-onset atrial fibrillation. Results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled study. Ear: Heart I. (1997) 18(10):1649–1654.
   Google Scholar
• •Trial showing increased early AF conversion to SR with propafenone but equalising with placebo at 24 h.
   Google Scholar
• BOTTO GL, CAPUCCI A, BONINI W et al.: Conversion of recent onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm using a single oral loading dose of propafenone: comparison of two regimens. Int. J. Cardiol (1997) 58(1):55–61.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BELLANDI F, CANTINI F, PEDONE T et al.: Effectiveness of intravenous propafenone for conversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation: a placebo-controlled study. Clin. Cardiol (1995) 18(11):631–634.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• UK PROPAFENONE PSVT STUDY GROUP: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of propafenone in the prophylaxis of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Circulation (1995) 92(9):2550–2557.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LEE SH, CHEN SA, CHIANG CE et al.:Comparisons of oral propafenone and quinidine as an initial treatment option in patients with symptomatic paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a double-blind, randomized trial.Intern. Med. (1996) 239(3):253–260.
   Google Scholar
• •A trial showing the supreriority of propafenonone over quinidine for paroxysmal AE
   Google Scholar
• REIMOLD SC, CANTILLON CO, FRIEDMAN PL, ANTMAN EM: Propafenone versus sotalol for suppression of recurrent symptomatic atrial fibrillation. Am. J. Cardiol (1993) 71(7):558–563.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DONOVAN KD, DOBB GJ,COOMBS LJ et al.: Reversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm byintravenous flecainide. Am. Cardiol (1991) 67(2):137–141.
   Google Scholar
• •A trial establishing the use of flecainide in reverting acute AE
   Google Scholar
• ANDERSON JL, GILBERT EM, ALPERT BL et al.: Prevention of symptomatic recurrences of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in patients initially tolerating antiarrhythmic therapy. A multicenter, double-blind, crossover study of flecainide and placebo with transtelephonic monitoring. Flecainide Supraventricular Tachycardia Study Group. Circulation (1989) 80(6):1557–1570.
   Google Scholar
• •A trial showing superiority of flecainide compared to placebo in treating paroxysmal AF at the expense of increased adverse cardiac events.
   Google Scholar
• PIETERSEN AH, HELLEMANN H: Usefulness of flecainide for prevention of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and flutter. Danish-Norwegian Flecainide Multicenter Study Group. Am.j Cardiol (1991) 67(8):713–717.
   Google Scholar
• •Similar results to above although with fewer serious adverse events.
   Google Scholar
• PRELIMINARY REPORT: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators. N Engl. Med. (1989) 321(6):406–412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••An important trial establishing mortalityrisk post myocardial infarction for Class Ic agents.
   Google Scholar
• VOS MA, GOLITSYN SR, STANGL K et al.: Superiority of ibutilide (a new Class III agent) over DL-sotalol in converting atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation. The Ibutilide/Sotalol Comparator Study Group. Heart (1998) 79(6):568–575.
   Google Scholar
• HALINEN MO, HUTTUNEN M, PAAKKINEN S, TARSSANEN L: Comparison of sotalol with digoxin-quinidine for conversion of acute atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm (the Sotalol-Digoxin-Quinidine Trial). Am. I Cardiol (1995) 76(7):495–498.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SUNG RJ, TAN HL, KARAGOUNIS L et al.: Intravenous sotalol for the termination of supraventricular tachycardia and atrial fibrillation and flutter: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Sotalol Multicenter Study Group. Am. Heart I. (1995) 129(4):739–748.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •This study showed no efficacy for sotalolol over placebo for AF cardioversion.
   Google Scholar
• SINGH S, SAINT RK, DIMARCO Jet al.:Efficacy and safety of sotalol in digitalized patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. The Sotalol Study Group. Am." Cardiol (1991) 68 (11) :1227–1230.
   Google Scholar
• •This study showed no efficacy for sotalolol over placebo for AF cardioversion.
   Google Scholar
• BENDITT DG, WILLIAMS JH, JIN Jet al.: Maintenance of sinus rhythm with oral d,1-sotalol therapy in patients with symptomatic atrial fibrillation and/or atrial flutter. d,1-Sotalol Atrial Fibrillation/Flutter Study Group. Am. .1. Cardiol (1999) 84(3):270–277.
   Google Scholar
• •Showed efficacy of sotalol in maintenance treatment for AE
   Google Scholar
• WANLESS RS, ANDERSON K, JOY M, JOSEPH SP: Multicenter comparative study of the efficacy and safety of sotalol in the prophylactic treatment of patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Am. Heart J. (1997) 133(0441–446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JUUL-MOLLER S, EDVARDSSON N, REHNQVIST-AHLBERG N: Sotalol versus quinidine for the maintenance of sinus rhythm after direct current conversion of atrial fibrillation. Circulation (1990) 82(6):1932–1939.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ROY D, TALAJIC M, DORIAN P et al: Amiodarone to prevent recurrence of atrial fibrillation. Canadian Trial of Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. N Engl. J. Med. (2000) 342(13):913–920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Showed amiodarone to be more effective then sotalolol and propafenone for the maintenance therapy of AE
   Google Scholar
• GALVE E, RIUS T, BALLESTER R et al.:Intravenous amiodarone in treatment of recent-onset atrial fibrillation: results of a randomized, controlled study. I Am. Coll. Cardiol (1996) 27(5):1079–1082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •The only modest benefit for intravenous amiodarone seen.
   Google Scholar
• DONOVAN KD, POWER BM, HOCKINGS BE, DOBB GJ, LEE KY: Intravenous flecainide versus amiodarone for recent-onset atrial fibrillation. Am. J. Cardiol (1995) 75(10):693–697.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Intravenous flecainide was found to revert AF earlier than amiodarone.
   Google Scholar
• BERTINI G, CONTI A, FRADELLA G et al.: Propafenone versus amiodarone in field treatment of primary atrial tachydysrhythmias. Emerg. Med. (1990) 8(1):15–20.
   Google Scholar
• KOCHIADAKIS GE, IGOUMENIDIS NE,SOLOMOU MC et al: Efficacy of amiodarone for the termination of persistent atrial fibrillation. Am. J. Cardiol (1999) 83(1):58–61.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •This study found amiodarone to be safe and effective for persistent AE
   Google Scholar
• VORPERIAN VR, HAVIGHURST TC, MILLERS, JANUARY CT: Adverse effects of low dose amiodarone: a meta-analysis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1997) 30(3):791–798.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LALEVEE N, NARGEOT J, BARRERE-LEMAIRE S, GAUTIER P, RICHARD S: Effects of amiodarone and dronedarone on voltage-dependent sodium current in human cardiomyocytes. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (2003) 14(8):885–890.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •An important trial in establishing effects of dronedarone.
   Google Scholar
• TOUBOUL P, BRUGADA J, CAPUCCI Aet al.: Dronedarone for prevention of atrial fibrillation: a dose-ranging study. Eur. HeartJ. (2003) 24(16):1481–1487.
   Google Scholar
• •An important study to establish dose.
   Google Scholar
• FALK RH, POLLAK A, SINGH SN,FRIEDRICH T: Intravenous dofetilide, a Class III antiarrhythmic agent, for the termination of sustained atrial fibrillation or flutter. Intravenous Dofetilide Investigators. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1997) 29(2):385–390.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Important in establishing the efficacy of dofetilide especially for atrial flutter.
   Google Scholar
• NORGAARD BL, WACHTELL K, CHRISTENSEN PD et al.: Efficacy and safety of intravenously administered dofetilide in acute termination of atrial fibrillation and flutter: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Danish Dofetilide in Atrial Fibrillation and Flutter Study Group. Am. Heart J. (1999) 137(6):1062–1069.
   Google Scholar
• •Also established efficacy and highlighted the risk of pro-arrhythmia.
   Google Scholar
• SEDGWICK ML, LIP G, RAE AP, COBBE SM: Chemical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with intravenous dofetilide. Int. J. Cardiol (1995) 49(2):159–166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SINGH S, ZOBLE RG, YELLEN L et al: Efficacy and safety of oral dofetilide in converting to and maintaining sinus rhythm in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter: the symptomatic atrial fibrillation investigative research on dofetilide (SAFIRE-D) study.Circulation (2000) 102(19):2385–2390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important large study reinforcing moderate efficacy for AF reversion but risk of proauhythmia.
   Google Scholar
• GREENBAUM RA CT, CHANNER KS et al.: Conversion of atrial fibrillation and maintenance of sinus rhythm by dofetilide: the EMERALD (European and Australian Multicentre Evaluation Research on Atrial Fibrillation Dofetilide) study. Circulation (1998) 98(I):1633 (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• STAMBLER BS, WOOD MA, ELLENBOGEN KA: Antiarrhythmic actions of intravenous ibutilide compared with procainamide during human atrial flutter and fibrillation: electrophysiological determinants of enhanced conversion efficacy. Circulation (1997) 96(12):4298–4306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ELLENBOGEN KA, STAMBLER BS, WOOD MA et al.: Efficacy of intravenous ibutilide for rapid termination of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter: a dose-response study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1996) 28(1):130–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Important in establishing the efficacy of ibutilide with side-effect of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia.
   Google Scholar
• STAMBLER BS, WOOD MA, ELLENBOGEN KA et al: Efficacy and safety of repeated intravenous doses of ibutilide for rapid conversion of atrial flutter or fibrillation. Ibutilide Repeat Dose Study Investigators. Circulation (1996) 94(7):1613–1621.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Important to also establish the efficacy of ibutilide.
   Google Scholar
• KHAYKIN Y, NEWMAN D, KOWALEWSKI M, KORLEY V, DORIAN P: Biphasic versus monophasic cardioversion in shock-resistant atrial fibrillation." Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (2003) 14(8):868–872.
   Google Scholar
• •An important new advance in direct current cardioversion.
   Google Scholar
• CRIJNS HJ, VAN GELDER IC, VAN GILST WH et al.: Serial antiarrhythmic drug treatment to maintain sinus rhythm after electrical cardioversion for chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. Am. J. Cardiol (1991) 68(4):335–341.
   Google Scholar
• VAN GELDER IC, CRIJNS HJ, VAN GILST WH, VERWER R, LIE KI: Prediction of uneventful cardioversion and maintenance of sinus rhythm from direct-current electrical cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation and flutter. Am. j Cardiol (1991) 68(1):41–46. 1898Expert Op/n. Pharmacother. (2003) 4(11)
   Google Scholar
• MURGATROYD FD, SLADE AK, SOPHER SM et al.: Efficacy and tolerability of transvenous low energy cardioversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in humans. I Am. Coll. Cardiol (1995) 25(6):1347–1353.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LEVY S, RICARD P, CLAU P et al: Multicenter low energy transvenous atrial defibrillation (XAD) trial results in different subsets of atrial fibrillation. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1997) 29(4):750–755.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ROSSI M, LOWN B: The use of quinidine in cardioversion. Am. J. Cardiol (1967) 19(2):234–238.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Important in establishing antiarrhythmic pretreatment prior to DCR.
   Google Scholar
• ORAL H, SOUZA JJ, MICHAUD GF et al.: Facilitating transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with ibutilide pretreatment. N Engl. I Med. (1999) 340(24):1849–1854.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LIP GY, BEEVERS DG: ABC of atrial fibrillation. History, epidemiology, and importance of atrial fibrillation. BMJ(1995) 311(7016):1361–1363.
   Google Scholar
• FALK RH, KNOWLTON AA, BERNARD SA, GOTLIEB NE, BATTINELLI NJ: Digoxin for converting recent-onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. A randomized, double-blinded trial. Ann. Intern. Med. (1987) 106(4):503–506.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •An important early trial to show that digoxin had no efficacy in the reversion of AE
   Google Scholar
• MURGATROYD FD, GIBSON SM, BAIYAN X et al.: Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of digoxin in symptomatic paroxysmal atrial fibrillation.Circulation (1999) 99(21):2765–2770.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEWIS RV, MCMURRAY J,MCDEVITT DG: Effects of atenolol, verapamil, and xamoterol on heart rate and exercise tolerance in digitalised patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol (1989) 13(1):1–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SEGAL JB, MCNAMARA RL,MILLER MR et al: The evidence regarding the drugs used for ventricular rate control. Fam. Pract. (2000) 49(1):47–59.
   Google Scholar
• VVYSE DG, WALDO AL, DIMARCO JP et al.: A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl. J. Med. (2002) 347(23):1825–1833.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ••The AFFIRM trial is currently the largestinvestigation into rate versus rhythm strategy for AE
   Google Scholar
• VAN GELDER IC, HAGENS VE, BOSKER HA et al.: A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with recurrent persistent atrial fibrillation. N Engl. J. Med. (2002) 347(23):1834–1840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A smaller trial on the subject.
   Google Scholar
• HOHNLOSER SH, KUCK KH, LILIENTHAL J: Rhythm or rate control in atrial fibrillation-Pharmacological Intervention in Atrial Fibrillation (PIAF): a randomised trial. Lancet (2000) 356 (9244) : 1789–1794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A smaller trial on the subject.
   Google Scholar
• HART RG, BENAVENTE 0, MCBRIDE R, PEARCE LA: Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med. (1999) 131(7):492–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important meta-analysis on the subject.
   Google Scholar
• STERN S, ALTKORN D, LEVINSON W: Anticoagulation for chronic atrial fibrillation. "AMA (2000) 283(22):2901-2903.los. ALBERS GW, DALEN JE, LAUPACIS Aet al.: Antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Chest (2001) 119 (1 Suppl.):194S–206S.
   Google Scholar
• •An important and comprehensive review.
   Google Scholar
• MIRZA I, JAMES S, HOLT P: Biatrial pacing for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a randomized prospective study into the suppression of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation using biatrial pacing. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (2002) 40(3):457–463.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •A novel pacing strategy for paroxysmal AE
   Google Scholar
• SPURRELL P, MITCHELL A, KAMALVAND K, SULKE N: Quality of life after use of the patient activated atrial defibrillator. Int. .1. Clin. Pract. (2003) 57(1):30–34.
   Google Scholar
• TSAI CE CTAI T, CHEN SA: Pulmonary vein ablation: role in preventing atrial fibrillation. Curt: Opin. Cardiol (2003) 18(1):39–46.
   Google Scholar
• •An excellent review on all aspects of the topic.
   Google Scholar
• ORAL H, KNIGHT BP, TADA H et al: Pulmonary vein isolation for paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation.Circulation (2002) 105(9):1077–1081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important study of this technique.
   Google Scholar
• HAISSAGUERRE M, JAIS P, SHAH DC et al.: Electrophysiological end point for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation initiated from multiple pulmonary venous foci. Circulation (2000) 101(12):1409–1417.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PAPPONE C, ROSANIO S, AUGELLO G et al.: Mortality, morbidity, and quality of life after circumferential pulmonary vein ablation for atrial fibrillation: outcomes from a controlled nonrandomized long-term study. Am. Coll. Cardiol (2003) 42(2):185–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An important study with this technique of ablation.
   Google Scholar
• PAPPONE C, ORETO G, ROSANIO S et al.: Atrial electroanatomic remodeling after circumferential radiofrequency pulmonary vein ablation: efficacy of an anatomic approach in a large cohort of patients with atrial fibrillation.Circulation (2001) 104(21):2539–2544.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •An important early study of this ablation technique.
   Google Scholar
• RAMAN JS, ISHIKAWA S, POWER JM: Epicardial radiofrequency ablation of both atria in the treatment of atrial fibrillation: experience in patients. Ann. Thome. Surg. (2002) 74(5):1506–1509.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GILLINOV AM, BLACKSTONE EH, MCCARTHY PM: Atrial fibrillation: current surgical options and their assessment. Ann. Thome. &mg. (2002) 74(6):2210–2217.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •A good review of the subject.
   Google Scholar
• BANDO K, KOBAYASHI J, KOSAKAI Y et al.: Impact of Cox maze procedure on outcome in patients with atrial fibrillation and mitral valve disease. Thome. Cardiovasc. &mg. (2002) 124(3):575–583.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• KUSUMOTO FM, GOLDSCHLAGER N: Device therapy for cardiac arrhythmias. "AMA (2002) 287(14):1848–1852.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GROSS JN, RSACKSTEIN D, FURMAN S: Cardiac pacing and atrial arrhythmias. Cardiol Clin. (1992) 10(4):609–617.Expert Op/n. Pharmacother. (2003) 4(11)
   Google Scholar