Advanced search
Publication Cover
Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy Volume 8, 2008 - Issue 1
Submit an article Journal homepage
77
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Protective cancer immunotherapy: what can the innate immune system contribute?

Frank Schmitz Technical University Munich, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Trogerstrasse 30, 81675 Munich, Germany +49 89 4140 4184; +49 89 4140 4139; [email protected]
, MD &
Antje Heit Technical University Munich, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Trogerstrasse 30, 81675 Munich, Germany +49 89 4140 4184; +49 89 4140 4139; [email protected]
, MD
Pages 31-43 | Published online: 17 Dec 2007

Bibliography

  • Huhn D, Von Schilling C, Wilhelm M, et al. Rituximab therapy of patients with B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2001;98(5):1326-31
  • Katz S, Schapira H. Spontaneous regression of genitourinary cancer – an update. J Urol 1982;128(1):1-4
  • Schulz H, Klein S, Rehwald U, et al. Phase II study of a combined immunochemotherapy using rituximab and fludarabine in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2002;100(9):3115-20
  • Ault K, Group FIS. Effect of prophylactic human papillomavirus L1 virus-like-particle vaccine on risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2, grade 3, and adenocarcinoma in situ: a combined analysis of four randomised clinical trials. Lancet 2007;369(9576):1861-8
  • Joura E, Leodolter S, Hernandez-Avila M, et al. Efficacy of a quadrivalent prophylactic human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, and 18) L1 virus-like-particle vaccine against high-grade vulval and vaginal lesions: a combined analysis of three randomised clinical trials. Lancet 2007;369(9574):1693-702
  • Monath T, Mccarthy K, Bedford P, et al. Clinical proof of principle for ChimeriVax: recombinant live, attenuated vaccines against flavivirus infections. Vaccine 2002;20(7-8):1004-18
  • Arroyo J, Miller C, Catalan J, et al. ChimeriVax-West Nile virus live-attenuated vaccine: preclinical evaluation of safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy. J Virol 2004;78(22):12497-507
  • Bhatt T, Crabtree M, Guirakhoo F, Monath T, Miller B. Growth characteristics of the chimeric Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine candidate, ChimeriVax-JE (YF/JE SA14–14–2), in Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes albopictus, and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2000;62(4):480-4
  • Guirakhoo F, Weltzin R, Chambers T, et al. Recombinant chimeric yellow fever-dengue type 2 virus is immunogenic and protective in nonhuman primates. J Virol 2000;74(12):5477-85
  • Monath T, Nichols R, Archambault W, et al. Comparative safety and immunogenicity of two yellow fever 17D vaccines (ARILVAX and YF-VAX) in a Phase III multicenter, double-blind clinical trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2002;66(5):533-41
  • Akira S, Takeda K, Kaisho T. Toll-like receptors: critical proteins linking innate and acquired immunity. Nat Immunol 2001;2(8):675-80
  • Uematsu S, Sato S, Yamamoto M, et al. Interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-1 plays an essential role for Toll-like receptor (TLR)7- and TLR9-mediated interferon-{alpha} induction. J Exp Med 2005;201(6):915-23
  • Bevaart L, Van Ojik H, Sun A, et al. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides enhance FcgammaRI-mediated cross presentation by dendritic cells. Int Immunol 2004;16(8):1091-98
  • Datta S, Redecke V, Prilliman K, et al. A subset of Toll-like receptor ligands induces cross-presentation by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. J Immunol 2003;170(8):4102-10
  • Curtsinger J, Gerner M, Lins D, Mescher M. Signal 3 availability limits the CD8 T cell response to a solid tumor. J Immunol 2007;178(11):6752-60
  • Curtsinger J, Lins D, Mescher M. Signal 3 determines tolerance versus full activation of naive CD8 T cells: dissociating proliferation and development of effector function. J Exp Med 2003;197(9):1141-51
  • Curtsinger J, Valenzuela J, Agarwal P, Lins D, Mescher M. Type I IFNs provide a third signal to CD8 T cells to stimulate clonal expansion and differentiation. J Immunol 2005;174(8):4465-9
  • Kieper W, Prlic M, Schmidt C, Mescher M, Jameson S. IL-12 enhances CD8 T cell homeostatic expansion. J Immunol 2001;166(9):5515-21
  • Schoenberger S, Toes R, Van Der Voort E, Offringa R, Melief C. T-cell help for cytotoxic T lymphocytes is mediated by CD40 – CD40L interactions. Nature 1998;393(6684):480-3
  • Van Essen D, Kikutani H, Gray D. CD40 ligand-transduced co-stimulation of T cells in the development of helper function. Nature 1995;378(6557):620-3
  • Pasare C, Medzhitov R. Control of B-cell responses by Toll-like receptors. Nature 2005;438(7066):364-8
  • Uchitel I, Khasman E. On the mechanism of adjuvant action of nonspecific stimlators of antibody formation. J Immunol 1965;94:492-7
  • Jordan M, Mills D, Kappler J, Marrack P, Cambier J. Promotion of B cell immune responses via an alum-induced myeloid cell population. Science 2004;304(5678):1808-10
  • Li H, Nookala S, Re F. Aluminum hydroxide adjuvants activate caspase-1 and induce IL-1beta and IL-18 release. J Immunol 2007;178(8):5271-6
  • Johnsen I, Nguyen T, Ringdal M, et al. Toll-like receptor 3 associates with c-Src tyrosine kinase on endosomes to initiate antiviral signaling. EMBO J 2006;25(14):3335-46
  • De Bouteiller O, Merck E, Hasan U, et al. Recognition of double-stranded RNA by human toll-like receptor 3 and downstream receptor signaling requires multimerization and an acidic pH. J Biol Chem 2005;280(46):38133-45
  • Latz E, Schoenemeyer A, Visintin A, et al. TLR9 signals after translocating from the ER to CpG DNA in the lysosome. Nat Immunol 2004;5(2):190-8
  • Heil F, Ahmad-Nejad P, Hemmi H, et al. The Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7)-specific stimulus loxoribine uncovers a strong relationship within the TLR7, 8 and 9 subfamily. Eur J Immunol 2003;33(11):2987-97
  • Barton G, Medzhitov R. Toll-like receptor signaling pathways. Science 2003;300(5625):1524-5
  • Diebold S, Kaisho T, Hemmi H, Akira S, Reis E, Sousa C. Innate antiviral responses by means of TLR7-mediated recognition of single-stranded RNA. Science 2004;303(5663):1529-31
  • Heil F, Hemmi H, Hochrein H, et al. Species-specific recognition of single-stranded RNA via toll-like receptor 7 and 8. Science 2004;303(5663):1526-9
  • Hemmi H, Takeuchi O, Kawai T, et al. A Toll-like receptor recognizes bacterial DNA. Nature 2000;408(6813):740-5
  • Kawai T, Takeuchi O, Fujita T, et al. Lipopolysaccharide stimulates the MyD88-independent pathway and results in activation of IFN-regulatory factor 3 and the expression of a subset of lipopolysaccharide-inducible genes. J Immunol 2001;167(10):5887-94
  • Wagner H. Bacterial CpG DNA activates immune cells to signal infectious danger. Adv Immunol 1999;73:329-68
  • Doyle S, Vaidya S, O'Connell R, et al. IRF3 mediates a TLR3/TLR4-specific antiviral gene program. Immunity 2002;17(3):251-63
  • Oshiumi H, Matsumoto M, Funami K, Akazawa T, Seya T. TICAM-1, an adaptor molecule that participates in Toll-like receptor 3-mediated interferon-beta induction. Nat Immunol 2003;4(2):161-7
  • Schmitz F, Mages J, Heit A, Lang R, Wagner H. Transcriptional activation induced in macrophages by Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands: from expression profiling to a model of TLR signaling. Eur J Immunol 2004;34(10):2863-73
  • Yamamoto M, Sato S, Hemmi H, et al. Role of adaptor TRIF in the MyD88-independent toll-like receptor signaling pathway. Science 2003;301(5633):640-3
  • Honda K, Yanai H, Mizutani T, et al. Role of a transductional-transcriptional processor complex involving MyD88 and IRF-7 in Toll-like receptor signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101(43):15416-21
  • Honda K, Yanai H, Negishi H, et al. IRF-7 is the master regulator of type-I interferon-dependent immune responses. Nature 2005;434(7034):772-7
  • Kawai T, Sato S, Ishii K, et al. Interferon-alpha induction through Toll-like receptors involves a direct interaction of IRF7 with MyD88 and TRAF6. Nat Immunol 2004;5(10):1061-8
  • Negishi H, Fujita Y, Yanai H, et al. Evidence for licensing of IFN-gamma-induced IFN regulatory factor 1 transcription factor by MyD88 in Toll-like receptor-dependent gene induction program. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103(41):15136-41
  • Schmitz F, Heit A, Guggemoos S, et al. Interferon-regulatory-factor 1 controls Toll-like receptor 9-mediated IFN-beta production in myeloid dendritic cells. Eur J Immunol 2007;37(2):315-27
  • Inohara N, Nunez G. NODs: intracellular proteins involved in inflammation and apoptosis. Nat Rev Immunol 2003;3(5):371-82
  • Inohara N, Ogura Y, Nunez G. Nods: a family of cytosolic proteins that regulate the host response to pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol 2002;5(1):76-80
  • Tschopp J, Martinon F, Burns K. NALPs: a novel protein family involved in inflammation. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2003;4(2):95-104
  • Chamaillard M, Hashimoto M, Horie Y, et al. An essential role for NOD1 in host recognition of bacterial peptidoglycan containing diaminopimelic acid. Nat Immunol 2003;4(7):702-7
  • Girardin S, Boneca I, Carneiro L, et al. Nod1 detects a unique muropeptide from gram-negative bacterial peptidoglycan. Science 2003;300(5625):1584-7
  • Ogura Y, Inohara N, Benito A, et al. Nod2, a Nod1/Apaf-1 family member that is restricted to monocytes and activates NF-kappaB. J Biol Chem 2001;276(7):4812-18
  • Agostini L, Martinon F, Burns K, et al. NALP3 forms an IL-1beta-processing inflammasome with increased activity in Muckle-Wells autoinflammatory disorder. Immunity 2004;20(3):319-25
  • Franchi L, Amer A, Body-Malapel M, et al. Cytosolic flagellin requires Ipaf for activation of caspase-1 and interleukin 1beta in salmonella-infected macrophages. Nat Immunol 2006;7(6):576-82
  • Kanneganti T, Ozören N, Body-Malapel M, et al. Bacterial RNA and small antiviral compounds activate caspase-1 through cryopyrin/Nalp3. Nature 2006;440(7081):233-6
  • Mariathasan S, Newton K, Monack D, et al. Differential activation of the inflammasome by caspase-1 adaptors ASC and Ipaf. Nature 2004;430(6996):213-18
  • Mariathasan S, Weiss D, Newton K, et al. Cryopyrin activates the inflammasome in response to toxins and ATP. Nature 2006;440(7081):228-32
  • Martinon F, Pétrilli V, Mayor A, Tardivel A, Tschopp J. Gout-associated uric acid crystals activate the NALP3 inflammasome. Nature 2006;440(7081):237-41
  • Miao E, Alpuche-Aranda C, Dors M, et al. Cytoplasmic flagellin activates caspase-1 and secretion of interleukin 1beta via Ipaf. Nat Immunol 2006;7(6):569-75
  • Wesche H, Henzel W, Shillinglaw W, Li S, Cao Z. MyD88: an adapter that recruits IRAK to the IL-1 receptor complex. Immunity 1997;7(6):837-47
  • Hornung V, Ellegast J, Kim S, et al. 5′-Triphosphate RNA is the ligand for RIG-I. Science 2006;314(5801):994-7
  • Kato H, Sato S, Yoneyama M, et al. Cell type-specific involvement of RIG-I in antiviral response. Immunity 2005;23(1):19-28
  • Kato H, Takeuchi O, Sato S, et al. Differential roles of MDA5 and RIG-I helicases in the recognition of RNA viruses. Nature 2006;441(7089):101-5
  • Pichlmair A, Schulz O, Tan C, et al. RIG-I-mediated antiviral responses to single-stranded RNA bearing 5′-phosphates. Science 2006;314(5801):997-1001
  • Ishii K, Coban C, Kato H, et al. A Toll-like receptor-independent antiviral response induced by double-stranded B-form DNA. Nat Immunol 2006;7(1):40-8
  • Stetson D, Medzhitov R. Recognition of cytosolic DNA activates an IRF3-dependent innate immune response. Immunity 2006;24(1):93-103
  • Takaoka A, Wang Z, Choi MK, et al. DAI (DLM-1/ZBP1) is a cytosolic DNA sensor and an activator of innate immune response. Nature 2007;448(7152):501-5
  • Babiuk S, Mookherjee N, Pontarollo R, et al. TLR9-/- and TLR9+/+ mice display similar immune responses to a DNA vaccine. Immunology 2004;113(1):114-20
  • Spies B, Hochrein H, Vabulas M, et al. Vaccination with plasmid DNA activates dendritic cells via Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) but functions in TLR9-deficient mice. J Immunol 2003;171(11):5908-12
  • Brown G. Dectin-1: a signalling non-TLR pattern-recognition receptor. Nat Rev Immunol 2006;6(1):33-43
  • Cambi A, Koopman M, Figdor C. How C-type lectins detect pathogens. Cell Microbiol 2005;7(4):481-8
  • Leibundgut-Landmann S, Gros O, Robinson M, et al. Syk- and CARD9-dependent coupling of innate immunity to the induction of T helper cells that produce interleukin 17. Nat Immunol 2007;8(6):630-8
  • Rogers N, Slack E, Edwards A, et al. Syk-dependent cytokine induction by dectin-1 reveals a novel pattern recognition pathway for C type lectins. Immunity 2005;22(4):507-17
  • Carson D, Raz E. Oligonucleotide adjuvants for T helper 1 (Th1)-specific vaccination. J Exp Med 1997;186(10):1621-2
  • Chu R, Targoni O, Krieg A, Lehmann P, Harding C. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides act as adjuvants that switch on T helper 1 (Th1) immunity. J Exp Med 1997;186(10):1623-31
  • Krieg A. CpG motifs in bacterial DNA and their immune effects. Annu Rev Immunol 2002;20:709-60
  • Walker P, Scharton-Kersten T, Krieg A, et al. Immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotides promote protective immunity and provide systemic therapy for leishmaniasis via IL-12- and IFN-gamma-dependent mechanisms. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96(12):6970-5
  • Beloeil L, Tomkowiak M, Angelov G, et al. In vivo impact of CpG1826 oligodeoxynucleotide on CD8 T cell primary responses and survival. J Immunol 2003;171(6):2995-3002
  • Gelman A, Larosa D, Zhang J, et al. The adaptor molecule MyD88 activates PI-3 kinase signaling in CD4+ T cells and enables CpG oligodeoxynucleotide-mediated costimulation. Immunity 2006;25(5):783-93
  • Larosa D, Gelman A, Rahman A, et al. CpG DNA inhibits CD4+CD25+ Treg suppression through direct MyD88-dependent costimulation of effector CD4+ T cells. Immunol Lett 2007;108(2):183-8
  • Hornung V, Rothenfusser S, Britsch S, et al. Quantitative expression of toll-like receptor 1 – 10 mRNA in cellular subsets of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and sensitivity to CpG oligodeoxynucleotides. J Immunol 2002;168(9):4531-7
  • Cornélie S, Hoebeke J, Schacht A, et al. Direct evidence that toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) functionally binds plasmid DNA by specific cytosine-phosphate-guanine motif recognition. J Biol Chem 2004;279(15):15124-9
  • Tudor D, Dubuquoy C, Gaboriau V, et al. TLR9 pathway is involved in adjuvant effects of plasmid DNA-based vaccines. Vaccine 2005;23(10):1258-64
  • Bernstein D, Harrison C, Tomai M, Miller R. Daily or weekly therapy with resiquimod (R-848) reduces genital recurrences in herpes simplex virus-infected guinea pigs during and after treatment. J Infect Dis 2001;183(6):844-9
  • Mcinturff J, Modlin R, Kim J. The role of toll-like receptors in the pathogenesis and treatment of dermatological disease. J Invest Dermatol 2005;125(1):1-8
  • Stockfleth E, Trefzer U, Garcia-Bartels C, et al. The use of Toll-like receptor-7 agonist in the treatment of basal cell carcinoma: an overview. Br J Dermatol 2003;149(Suppl 66):53-6
  • Stary G, Bangert C, Tauber M, et al. Tumoricidal activity of TLR7/8-activated inflammatory dendritic cells. J Exp Med 2007;204(6):1441-51
  • Hamm S, Heit A, Koffler M, et al. Immunostimulatory RNA is a potent inducer of antigen-specific cytotoxic and humoral immune response in vivo. Int Immunol 2007;19(3):297-304
  • Johnston D, Zaidi B, Bystryn J. TLR7 imidazoquinoline ligand 3M-019 is a potent adjuvant for pure protein prototype vaccines. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2007;56(8):1133-41
  • Lan T, Kandimalla ER, Yu D, et al. Stabilized immune modulatory RNA compounds as agonists of Toll-like receptors 7 and 8. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104(34):13750-5
  • Kanneganti T, Lamkanfi M, Kim Y, et al. Pannexin-1-mediated recognition of bacterial molecules activates the cryopyrin inflammasome independent of Toll-like receptor signaling. Immunity 2007;26(4):433-43
  • Hoebe K, Du X, Georgel P, et al. Identification of Lps2 as a key transducer of MyD88-independent TIR signalling. Nature 2003;424(6950):743-8
  • Dillon S, Agrawal A, Van Dyke T, et al. A Toll-like receptor 2 ligand stimulates Th2 responses in vivo, via induction of extracellular signal-regulated kinase mitogen-activated protein kinase and c-Fos in dendritic cells. J Immunol 2004;172(8):4733-43
  • Slack E, Robinson M, Hernanz-Falcón P, et al. Syk-dependent ERK activation regulates IL-2 and IL-10 production by DC stimulated with zymosan. Eur J Immunol 2007;37(6):1600-12
  • Krieg A. Development of TLR9 agonists for cancer therapy. J Clin Invest 2007;117(5):1184-94
  • Baral R, Saha A, Chatterjee S, et al. Immunostimulatory CpG oligonucleotides enhance the immune response of anti-idiotype vaccine that mimics carcinoembryonic antigen. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2003;52(5):317-27
  • Cooper C, Davis H, Morris M, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of CPG 7909 injection as an adjuvant to Fluarix influenza vaccine. Vaccine 2004;22(23-24):3136-43
  • Nichani A, Mena A, Kaushik R, et al. Stimulation of innate immune responses by CpG oligodeoxynucleotide in newborn lambs can reduce bovine herpesvirus-1 shedding. Oligonucleotides 2006;16(1):58-67
  • Sparwasser T, Vabulas R, Villmow B, Lipford G, Wagner H. Bacterial CpG-DNA activates dendritic cells in vivo: T helper cell-independent cytotoxic T cell responses to soluble proteins. Eur J Immunol 2000;30(12):3591-7
  • Vabulas R, Pircher H, Lipford G, Häcker H, Wagner H. CpG-DNA activates in vivo T cell epitope presenting dendritic cells to trigger protective antiviral cytotoxic T cell responses. J Immunol 2000;164(5):2372-8
  • Yamamoto S, Yamamoto T, Iho S, Tokunaga T. Activation of NK cell (human and mouse) by immunostimulatory DNA sequence. Springer Semin Immunopathol 2000;22(1-2):35-43
  • Ballas Z, Krieg A, Warren T, et al. Divergent therapeutic and immunologic effects of oligodeoxynucleotides with distinct CpG motifs. J Immunol 2001;167(9):4878-86
  • Jahrsdörfer B, Weiner G. Immunostimulatory CpG oligodeoxynucleotides and antibody therapy of cancer. Semin Oncol 2003;30(4):476-82
  • Van Ojik H, Bevaart L, Dahle C, et al. CpG-A and B oligodeoxynucleotides enhance the efficacy of antibody therapy by activating different effector cell populations. Cancer Res 2003;63(17):5595-600
  • Schmidt C. Clinical setbacks for toll-like receptor 9 agonists in cancer. Nat Biotechnol 2007;25(8):825-6
  • Ichinohe T, Watanabe I, Ito S, et al. Synthetic double-stranded RNA poly(I:C) combined with mucosal vaccine protects against influenza virus infection. J Virol 2005;79(5):2910-19
  • Salem M, Kadima A, Cole D, Gillanders W. Defining the antigen-specific T-cell response to vaccination and poly(I:C)/TLR3 signaling: evidence of enhanced primary and memory CD8 T-cell responses and antitumor immunity. J Immunother 2005;28(3):220-8
  • Mata-Haro V, Cekic C, Martin M, et al. The vaccine adjuvant monophosphoryl lipid A as a TRIF-biased agonist of TLR4. Science 2007;316(5831):1628-32
  • Burgdorf S, Kautz A, Böhnert V, Knolle P, Kurts C. Distinct pathways of antigen uptake and intracellular routing in CD4 and CD8 T cell activation. Science 2007;316(5824):612-16
  • Burgdorf S, Lukacs-Kornek V, Kurts C. The mannose receptor mediates uptake of soluble but not of cell-associated antigen for cross-presentation. J Immunol 2006;176(11):6770-6
  • Kitajima T, Caceres-Dittmar G, Tapia F, et al. T cell-mediated terminal maturation of dendritic cells: loss of adhesive and phagocytotic capacities. J Immunol 1996;157(6):2340-7
  • Cho H, Takabayashi K, Cheng P, et al. Immunostimulatory DNA-based vaccines induce cytotoxic lymphocyte activity by a T-helper cell-independent mechanism. Nat Biotechnol 2000;18(5):509-14
  • Datta S, Cho H, Takabayashi K, Horner A, Raz E. Antigen-immunostimulatory oligonucleotide conjugates: mechanisms and applications. Immunol Rev 2004;199:217-26
  • Heit A, Huster K, Schmitz F, et al. CpG-DNA aided cross-priming by cross-presenting B cells. J Immunol 2004;172(3):1501-7
  • Heit A, Maurer T, Hochrein H, et al. Cutting edge: Toll-like receptor 9 expression is not required for CpG DNA-aided cross-presentation of DNA-conjugated antigens but essential for cross-priming of CD8 T cells. J Immunol 2003;170(6):2802-5
  • Heit A, Schmitz F, O'Keeffe M, et al. Protective CD8 T cell immunity triggered by CpG-protein conjugates competes with the efficacy of live vaccines. J Immunol 2005;174(7):4373-80
  • Maurer T, Heit A, Hochrein H, et al. CpG-DNA aided cross-presentation of soluble antigens by dendritic cells. Eur J Immunol 2002;32(8):2356-64
  • Heit A, Schmitz F, Haas T, Busch D, Wagner H. Antigen co-encapsulated with adjuvants efficiently driver protective T-cell immunity. Eur J Immunol 2007;In press
  • Blander JM, Medzhitov R. Toll-dependent selection of microbial antigens for presentation by dendritic cells. Nature 2006;440(7085):808-12
  • Gaudin C, Dietrich P, Robache S, et al. In vivo local expansion of clonal T cell subpopulations in renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Res 1995;55(3):685-90
  • Kobayashi H, Dubois S, Sato N, et al. Role of trans-cellular IL-15 presentation in the activation of NK cell-mediated killing, which leads to enhanced tumor immunosurveillance. Blood 2005;105(2):721-7
  • Obeid M, Tesniere A, Ghiringhelli F, et al. Calreticulin exposure dictates the immunogenicity of cancer cell death. Nat Med 2007;13(1):54-61
  • Dunn G, Koebel C, Schreiber R. Interferons, immunity and cancer immunoediting. Nat Rev Immunol 2006;6(11):836-48
  • Dunn G, Old L, Schreiber R. The three Es of cancer immunoediting. Annu Rev Immunol 2004;22:329-60
  • Sica A, Schioppa T, Mantovani A, Allavena P. Tumour-associated macrophages are a distinct M2 polarised population promoting tumour progression: potential targets of anti-cancer therapy. Eur J Cancer 2006;42(6):717-27
  • Agnello V, Abel G, Elfahal M, Knight G, Zhang Q. Hepatitis C virus and other flaviviridae viruses enter cells via low density lipoprotein receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96(22):12766-71
  • Merx S, Neumaier M, Wagner H, Kirschning C, Ahmad-Nejad P. Characterization and investigation of single nucleotide polymorphisms and a novel TLR2 mutation in the human TLR2 gene. Hum Mol Genet 2007;16(10):1225-32
  • Merx S, Zimmer W, Neumaier M, Ahmad-Nejad P. Characterization and functional investigation of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the human TLR5 gene. Hum Mutat 2006;27(3):293

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.