Proton pump inhibitors and histamine-2 receptor antagonists in the intensive care setting: focus on therapeutic and adverse events

Bibliography

• Barkun AN, Bardou M, Kuipers EJ, et al. International consensus recommendations on the management of patients with nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Ann Intern Med 2010;152:101-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dworzynski K, Pollit V, Kelsey A, et al. Management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding” summary of NICE guidance. BMJ 2012;344:e3412
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gralnek IM, Barkun AN, Bardou M. Management of acute bleeding from a peptic ulcer. N Engl J Med 2008;359:928-37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali T, Harty RF. Stress-induced ulcer bleeding in critically ill patients. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2009;38:245-65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLaren R. A review of stress ulcer prophylaxis. J Pharm Pract 2002;15:147-57
   Google Scholar
• Cook DJ, Fuller HD, Guyatt GH, et al. Risk factors for gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N Engl J Med 1994;330:377-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wunsch H, Linde-Zwirble WT, Angus DC, et al. The epidemiology of mechanical ventilation use in the United States. Crit Care Med 2010;38:1947-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook D, Heyland D, Griffith L, et al. Risk factors for clinically important upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Crit Care Med 1999;27:2812-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLaren R, Reynolds P, Allen R. Histamine-2 receptor antagonists vs proton pump inhibitors on gastrointestinal tract hemorrhage and infectious complications in the intensive care unit. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:564-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pimentel M, Roberts DE, Bernstein CN, et al. Clinically significant gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients in an era of prophylaxis. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:2801-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook DJ, Griffith LE, Walter SD, et al. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. The attributable mortality and length of intensive care unit stay of clinically important gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care 2001;5:368-75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Menachem T, McCarthy BD, Fogel R, et al. Prophylaxis for stress-related gastrointestinal hemorrhage: a cost effectiveness analysis. Crit Care Med 1996;24:338-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Society of health-System Pharmacists. ASHP therapeutics guidelines on stress ulcer prophylaxis. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1999;56:347-79
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preslaski C, Mueller S, Kiser T, et al. A survey of prescriber perceptions about the prevention of stress-related mucosal bleeding in the intensive care unit. J Clin Pharm Ther 2014;39:658-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barletta J, Kanji S, MacLaren R, et al. Pharmacoepidemiology of stress ulcer prophylaxis in the United States and Canada. J Crit Care 2014;29:955-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lat I, Micek S, Janzen J, et al. Off-label medication use in adult critical care patients. J Crit Care 2011;26:89-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook DJ, Reeve BK, Guyatt GH, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill. Resolving discordant meta-analyses. JAMA 1996;275:308-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook D, Guyatt G, Marshall J, et al. A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N Engl J Med 1998;338:791-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alhazzani W, Alenezi F, Jaeschke RZ, et al. Proton pump inhibitors versus histamine 2 receptor antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2013;41:693-705
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin PC, Chang CH, Hsu PL, et al. The efficacy and safety of proton pump inhibitors vs histamine-2 receptor antagonists for stress ulcer bleeding prophylaxis among critical care patients: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2010;38:1197-205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkun AN, Bardou M, Pham CQ, et al. Proton pump inhibitors vs. histamine 2 receptor antagonists for stress-related mucosal bleeding prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107:507-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad SA, Gabrielli A, Margolis B, et al. Randomized, double-blind comparison of immediate-release omeprazole oral suspension versus intravenous cimetidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2005;33:760-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy MJ, Seelig CB, Robinson NJ, et al. Comparison of omeprazole and ranitidine for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Dig Dis Sci 1997;42:1255-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brophy G, Brackbill ML, Bidwell KL, et al. Prospective, randomized comparison of lansoprazole suspension, and intermittent intravenous famotidine on gastric pH and acid production in critically ill neurosurgical patients. Neurocrit Care 2010;13:176-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chahine C, Cohen H, Mukherji R. A comparison of lansoprazole and ranitidine for stress ulcer prophylaxis [abstract]. Crit Care Med 2003;31(Suppl):A85
   Google Scholar
• Hejazi RA, Salchi M. Stress ulcer prophylaxis with ranitidine and omeprazole [abstract]. Intensive Care Med 2004;30(Suppl):S181
   Google Scholar
• Kotlyanskaya A, Luka B, Mukherji R, et al. A comparison of lansoprazole disintegrating tablet, lansoprazole suspension, or ranitidine for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients [abstract]. Crit Care Med 2007;35(Suppl):A194
   Google Scholar
• Madl C, Kitzberger R, Warszawska J. Effect of intravenous esomeprazole versus ranitidine on gastric pH in critically ill patients – a prospective, randomized, double-blind, multicenter study [abstract]. Crit Care Med 2007;35(Suppl):A11
   Google Scholar
• Ojiako K, Shingala H, Schoorr C, et al. Famotidine versus pantoprazole for preventing bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract of critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Am J Crit Care 2008;17:142-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips JO, Metzler MH, Huckfeldt RE. A multicenter, prospective, randomized clinical trial of continuous I.V. ranitidine vs. omeprazole suspension in the prophylaxis of stress ulcer prophylaxis [abstract]. Crit Care Med 1998;26:A101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts KW, Pitcher D, Cryer B. Effect of lansoprazole suspension versus continuous ranitidine on gastric pH of mechanically ventilated intensive care unit patients [abstract]. Crit Care Med 2000;28:A185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibli MH, Malekanian F, Gibbons J. Comparison of intravenous proton-pump inhibitor vs. intravenous H2-blockers in prevention of stress ulcer bleeding in critically ill patients [abstract]. Chest 2006;130(Suppl):206S
   Google Scholar
• Fink M, Maroko R, Field B. Intravenous pantoprazole and continuous infusion cimetidine prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding regardless of II APACHE score in high risk intensive care unit patients [abstract]. Gastroenterology 2003;124:A625
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azevedo JR, Soares MG, Silva G. Prevention of stress ulcer bleeding in high risk patients: comparison of three drugs [abstract]. Crit Care Med 1999;27:A145
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Somberg L, Morris JJr, Fantus R, et al. Intermittent intravenous pantoprazole and continuous cimetidine infusion: effect on gastric pH control in critically ill patients at risk of developing stress-related mucosal disease. J Trauma 2008;64:1202-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kantorova I, Svoboda P, Scheer P, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a randomized controlled trial. Hepatogastroenterology 2004;51:757-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solouki M, Marashian S, Kouchak M. Comparison between the preventive effects of ranitidine and omeprazole on upper gastrointestinal bleeding among ICU patients. Tanaffos 2009;8(4):37-42
   Google Scholar
• Powell H, Morgan M, Li S. Inhibition of gastric acid secretion in the intensive care unit after coronary artery bypass graft. A pilot control study of intravenous omeprazole by bolus and infusion, ranitidine and placebo. Theor Surg 1993;8(3):125-30
   Google Scholar
• Liu BL, Li B, Zhang X, et al. A randomized controlled study comparing omeprazole and cimetidine for the prophylaxis of stress-related upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2013;118:115-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wee B, Liu CH, Cohen H, et al. IV famotidine vs. IV pantoprazole for stress ulcer prevention in the ICU: a prospective study [abstract]. Crit Care Med 2013;41(Suppl):731
   Google Scholar
• Krag M, Perner A, Wetterslev J, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the intensive care unit: is it indicated? A topical systematic review. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2013;57:835-47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zandstra DF, Stoutenbeek CP. The virtual absence of stress-ulceration related bleeding in ICU patients receiving prolonged mechanical ventilation without any prophylaxis. A prospective cohort study. Intensive Care Med 1994;20:335-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krag M, Perner A, Wetterslev J, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis versus placebo or no prophylaxis in critically ill patients. A systematic review of randomised clinical trials with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Intensive Care Med 2014;40:11-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marik PE, Vasu T, Hirani A, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the new millennium: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2010;38:2222-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erstad BL. Stress ulcer prophylaxis: it’s the same old wine in a brand new bottle. Crit Care Med 2014;42:111-14
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alaniz C, Hyzy RC. Time to declare a moratorium on stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill. Crit Care Med 2014;42:e636-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen H, MacLaren R, Martindale R, et al. Guidelines for stress ulcer prophylaxis in adult critically ill patients. Presented at the Annual Congress of the Society of Critical Care Medicine; Houston, TX; 2012
   Google Scholar
• Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012. Crit Care Med 2013;41:580-637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madsen KR, Lorentzen K, Clausen N, et al. Guideline for stress ulcer prophylaxis in the intensive care unit. Dan Med J 2014;61:C4811
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laheij RJ, Sturkenboom MC, Hassing RJ, et al. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia and use of gastric-acid suppressive drugs. JAMA 2004;292:1955-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulmez SE, Holm A, Frederiksen H, et al. Use of proton pump inhibitors and the risk of community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:950-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarkar M, Hennessy S, Yang YX. Proton pump inhibitor use and the risk for community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 2008;149:391-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano C, Wilhelm SM, Kale-Pradhan PB. Are proton pump inhibitors associated with the development of community-acquired pneumonia? A meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2012;5:337-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Jager CPC, Wever PC, Gemen EF, et al. Proton pump inhibitor therapy predisposes to community-acquired Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012;36:941-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eom CS, Jeon CY, Lim JW, et al. Use of acid-suppressive drugs and risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ 2011;183:310-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard J, Marshall JK, Moayyedi P. Systematic review of the risk of enteric infection in patients taking acid suppression. Am J Gastroenterol 2007;102:2047-56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwok CS, Arthur AK, Anibueze CI, et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection with acid suppressing drugs and antibiotics: meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107:1011-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howell MD, Novack V, Grgurich P, et al. Iatrogenic gastric acid suppression and the risk of nosocomial Clostridium difficile infection. Arch Intern Med 2010;170:784-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cadle RM, Mansouri MD, Logan N, et al. Association of proton-pump inhibitors with outcomes in Clostridium difficile colitis. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2007;64:2359-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham R, Dale B, Undy B, et al. Proton pump inhibitors as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile diarrhea. J Hosp Infect 2003;54:243-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dial S, Delaney JAC, Barkun AN, et al. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA 2005;294:2989-95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bavishi C, DuPont HL. Systematic review: the use of proton pump inhibitors and increased susceptibility to enteric infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;34:1269-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande A, Pant C, Pasupuleti V, et al. Association between proton pump inhibitor therapy and Clostridium difficile infection in a meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;10:225-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safdar N, Dezfulian C, Collard HR, et al. Clinical and economic consequences of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 2005;33:2184-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umscheid CA, Mitchell MD, Doshi JA, et al. Estimating the proportion of healthcare-associated infections that are reasonably preventable and the related mortality and costs. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011;32:101-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgmann H, Hiesmayr JM, Savey A, et al. Impact of nosocomial infections on clinical outcome and resource consumption in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2010;36:1597-601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kollef MH, Hamilton CW, Ernst FR. Economic impact of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large matched cohort. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2012;33:250-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. for the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31:431-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipp MJ, Nero DC, Callahan MA. Impact of hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;27:1733-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaulieu M, Williamson D, Pichette G, et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile-associated disease among patients receiving proton-pump inhibitors in a Quebec medical intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:1305-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegand PN, Nathwani D, Wilcox MH, et al. Clinical and economic burden of Clostridium difficile infection in Europe: a systematic review of healthcare-facility-acquired infection. J Hosp Infect 2012;81:1-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghantoji SS, Sail K, Lairson DR, et al. Economic healthcare costs of Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. J Hosp Infect 2010;74:309-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pakyz A, Carroll NV, Harpe SE, et al. Economic impact of Clostridium difficile infection in a multihospital cohort of academic health centers. Pharmacotherapy 2011;31:546-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGlone SM, Bailey RR, Zimmer SM, et al. The economic burden of Clostridium difficile. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012;18:282-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FDA Drug Safety Communication: clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea can be associated with stomach acid drugs known as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). Available from: www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/ucm290510.htm [Last accessed 29 July 2014]
   Google Scholar
• Lee GM, Kleinman K, Soumerai SB, et al. Effect of nonpayment for preventable infections in U.S. hospitals. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1428-37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tryba M. Sucralfate versus antacids or H2-antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis: a meta-analysis on efficacy and pneumonia rate. Crit Care Med 1991;19:942-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook DJ, Laine LA, Guyatt GH, et al. Nosocomial pneumonia and the role of gastric pH: a meta-analysis. Chest 1991;100:7-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messori A, Trippoli S, Vaiani M, et al. Bleeding and pneumonia in intensive care patients given ranitidine and sucralfate for prevention of stress ulcer: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2000;321:1-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang J, Cao Y, Liao C, et al. Effect of histamine-2-receptor antagonists versus sucralfate on stress ulcer prophylaxis in mechanically ventilated patients: a meta-analysis of 10 randomized controlled trials. Crit Care 2010;14:R194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tryba M, Cook DJ. Gastric alkalinization, pneumonia, and systemic infections: the controversy. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 1995;210:53-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baghaie AA, Mojtahedzadeh M, Levine RL, et al. Comparison of the effect of intermittent administration and continuous infusion of famotidine on gastric pH in critically ill patients: results of a prospective, randomized, crossover study. Crit Care Med 1995;23:687-91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jung R, MacLaren R. Proton pump inhibitors for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Ann Pharmacother 2002;36:1929-37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorens J, Froehlich F, Schwizer W, et al. Bacterial overgrowth during treatment with omeprazole compared with cimetidine: a prospective randomised double blind study. Gut 1996;39:54-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay EN, Pratt NL, Ryan P, et al. Proton pump inhibitors and the risk of pneumonia: a comparison of cohort and self-controlled case series designs. BMC Med Res Methodol 2013;13:82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herzig SJ, Howell MD, Ngo LH, et al. Acid-suppressive medication use and the risk for hospital-acquired pneumonia. JAMA 2009;301:2120-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bateman BT, Bykov K, Choudhry NK, et al. Type of stress ulcer prophylaxis and risk of nosocomial pneumonia in cardiac surgical patients: cohort study. BMJ 2013;347:f5416
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Redelmeier DA, McAlister FA, Kandel CE, et al. Postoperative pneumonia in elderly patients receiving acid suppressants: a retrospective cohort analysis. BMJ 2010;340:c2608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ran L, Khatibi NH, Qin X, et al. Proton pump inhibitor prophylaxis increases the risk of nosocomial pneumonia in patients with an intracerebral hemorrhagic stroke. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2011;111:435-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beaulieu M, Williamson D, Sirois C, et al. Do proton-pump inhibitors increase the risk for nosocomial pneumonia in a medical intensive care unit? J Crit Care 2008;23:513-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasuya Y, Hargett JL, Lenhardt R, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill stroke patients: frequency, risk factors, and outcomes. J Crit Care 2011;26:273-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miano TA, Reichert MG, Houle TT, et al. Nosocomial pneumonia risk and stress ulcer prophylaxis: a comparison of pantoprazole vs. ranitidine in cardiothoracic surgery patients. Chest 2009;136:440-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pakyz AL, Jawahar R, Wang Q, et al. Medication risk factors associated with healthcare-associated Clostridium difficile infection: a multilevel model case-control study among 64 US academic medical centres. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014;69:1127-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abou Chakra CN, Pepin J, Sirard S, et al. Risk factors for recurrence, complications and mortality in Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. PLoS One 2014;9:e98400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shivashankar R, Khanna S, Kammer PP, et al. Clinical predictors of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in out-patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014;40:518-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tleyjeh IM, Abdulhak AB, Riaz M, et al. The association between histamine 2 receptor antagonist use and Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2013;8:e56498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janarthanan S, Ditah I, Adler DG, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and proton pump inhibitor therapy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107:1001-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaulieu M, Williamson D, Pichette G, et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile–associated disease among patients receiving proton-pump inhibitors in a Quebec medical intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:1305-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens V, Dumyati G, Brown J, et al. Differential risk of Clostridium difficile infection with proton pump inhibitor use by level of antibiotic exposure. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2011;20:1035-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buendgens L, Bruensing J, Matthes M, et al. Administration of proton pump inhibitors in critically ill medical patients is associated with increased risk of developing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Crit Care 2014;29:e11-15
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loo VG, Bourgault AM, Poirier L, et al. Host and pathogen factors for Clostridium difficile infection and colonization. N Engl J Med 2011;365:1693-703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart DB, Hegarty JP. Correlation between virulence gene expression and proton pump inhibitors and ambient pH in Clostridium difficile: results of an in vitro study. J Med Microbiol 2013;62:1517-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegarty JP, Sangster W, Harris LRIII, et al. Proton pump inhibitors induce changes in colonocyte gene expression that may affect Clostridium difficile infection. Surgery 2014;156:972-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLaren R, Campbell J. Cost-effectiveness of histamine receptor-2 antagonist versus proton pump inhibitor for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2014;42:809-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkun AN, Adam V, Martel M, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis: stress ulcer bleeding prophylaxis with proton pump inhibitors, H2 receptor antagonists. Value Health 2013;16:14-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy CE, Stevens AM, Ferrentino N, et al. Frequency of inappropriate continuation of acid suppressive therapy after discharge in patients who began therapy in the surgical intensive care unit. Pharmacotherapy 2008;28:968-76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wohlt PD, Hansen LA, Fish JT. Inappropriate continuation of stress ulcer prophylactic therapy after discharge. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1611-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLaren R, Jarvis CL, Fish DN. Use of enteral nutrition for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Ann Pharmacother 2001;35:1614-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurt RT, Frazier TH, McClave SA, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in intensive care unit patients and the role of enteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012;36:721-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar