Pathogenesis and treatment of paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome

References

• Posner JB. Paraneoplastic syndromes. In: Neurologic complications of cancer. FA Davis Company, Philadelphia, USA, 353–385 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Dropcho EJ. Neurologic paraneoplastic syndromes. j Neurol Sci. 153, 264–278 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalmau JO. Posner JB. Paraneoplastic syndromes. Arch. Neurol 56, 405–408 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grisold W, Drlicek M. Paraneoplastic neuropathy. CUIT: Opin. Neurol 12, 617–625 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voltz R, Gultekin SH, Rosenfeld MR et al A serologic marker of paraneoplastic limbic and brain-stem encephalitis in patients with testicular cancer. N Engl. j Med. 340, 1788–1795 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudnicki SA, Dalmau J. Paraneoplastic syndromes of the spinal cord, nerve and muscle. Muscle Nerve 23, 1800–1818 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moll JVV, Antoine JC, Brashear HR et al Guidelines on the detection of paraneoplastic antineuronal-specific antibodies: report from the Workshop to the Fourth Meeting of the International Society of Neuro-Immunology on paraneoplastic neurological disease, October 22-23, 1994, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Neurology45, 1937–1941 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Describes the detection of antineuronal antibodies, such as antiHu, antiYo and antiRi, in patients with paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome.
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher CF, Okano HJ, Gilbert DJ et al Mouse chromosomal locations of nine genes encoding homologs of human paraneoplastic neurologic disorder antigens. Genomics 45, 313–319 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darnell RB. Onconeural antigens and the paraneoplastic neurologic disorders: At the intersection of cancer, immunity and the brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 93, 4529–4536 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gultekin SH, Rosenfeld MR, Voltz R, Eichen J, Posner JB, Dalmau J. Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis: neurological symptoms, immunological findings and tumour association in 50 patients. Brain 123, 1481–1494 (2000). iiSchmierer K, Grosse P, De Camilli P, Solimena M, Floyd S, Zscgenderlein R. Paraneoplastic stiff-person syndrome: No tumor progression over 5 years. Neurology 58, 148 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Darnell RB, DeAngelis LM. Regression of small-cell lung carcinoma in patients with paraneoplastic neuronal antibodies. Lancet 341, 21–22 (1993)
   Google Scholar
• Dropcho EJ. Paraneoplastic diseases of the nervous system. CUIT: Treat. Opt. Neurol. 1, 417–427 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Sutton U, Fursdon Davis CJ, Esiri MM, Hughes S, Amyes ER, Vincent A. AntiYo antibodies and cerebellar degeneration in a man withadenocarcinoma of the esophagus. Ann. Neurol 49,253–257 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felician O, Renard JL, Vega F et al Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration with antiYo antibody in a man. Neurology45, 1226–1227 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krakauer J, Balmaceda C, Gluck JT, Posner JB, Fete MR, Dalmau J. AntiYo-associated paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration in a man with adenocarcinoma of unknown origin. Neurology 46, 1486–1487 (1996)
   Google Scholar
• Meglic B, Graus F, Grad A. AntiYo- associated paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration in a man with gastric adenocarcinoma. j Neurol. Sci. 185,135–138 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Peterson K, Rosenblum MK, Kotanides H, Posner JB. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. I. A clinical analysis of 55 antiYo antibody-positive patients. Neurology 42, 1931-1937 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• •Clinical findings of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies.
   Google Scholar
• Giometto B, Marchiori GC, Nicolao P et al Sub-acute cerebellar degeneration with antiYo autoantibodies: immunohistochemical analysis of the immune reaction in the central nervous system. NeuropathoL AppL Neurobiol. 23, 468–474 (1997) [Published erratum appears in NeuropathoL AppL NeurobioL 24, 2 (1998)].
   Google Scholar
• •First description of infiltration of CD8+ T-cells in the early stage of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies.
   Google Scholar
• Trivedi R, Mundanthanam G, Amyes E, Lang B, Vincent A. Autoantibody screening in subacute cerebellar ataxia. Lancet 356, 565–566 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Dalmau J, Graus F, Rosenblum MK, Posner JB. AntiHu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy. A clinical study of 71 patients. Medicine 71, 59–72 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• •Describes the clinical findings of antiHu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy.
   Google Scholar
• Graus F, Keime-Guibert F, Rene R et al. AntiHu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis: analysis of 200 patients. Brain 124,1138–1148 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camdessanche JP, Antoine JC, Honnorat J et al. Paraneoplastic peripheral neuropathy associated with antiHu antibodies. A clinical and electrophysiological study of 20 patients. Brain 125,166–175 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Verma A, Berger JR, Snodgrass S, Petito C. Motor neurone disease: a paraneoplastic process associated with antihu antibody and small-cell lung carcinoma. Ann. Neurol. 40, 112–116 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsyth P, Dalmau J, Graus F, Cwik V, Rosenblum MK, Posner JB. Motor neurone syndromes in cancer patients. Ann. Neurol 41,722–730 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shavit YB, Graus F, Probst A, Rene R, Steck AJ. Epilepsia partialis continua: a new manifestation of antiHu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis. Ann. Neurol 45,255–258 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Dalmau J, Furneaux HM, Rosenblum MK, Graus F, Posner JB. Detection of the antiHu antibody in specific regions of the nervous system and tumor from patients with paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/ sensory neuronopathy. Neurology41,1757–1764 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Dalmau J, Gultekin SH, Voltz R et al. Mal, a novel neuron- and testis-specific protein, is recognized by the serum of patients with paraneoplastic neurological disorders. Brain 122,27–39 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckley C, Oger J, Clover L et al Potassium channel antibodies in two patients with reversible limbic encephalitis. Ann. Neurol. 50,73–78 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum T, Gartner J, Korholz D et al Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis in two teenage girls. Neuropediatrics 29,159–162 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bataller L, Graus F, Saiz A, Vilchez JJ. Spanish Opsoclonus—Myoclonus Study Group. Clinical outcome in adult onset idiopathic or Paraneoplastic opsoclonus—myoclonus. Brain 124,437–443 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Rickman OB, Parisi JE, Yu Z, Lennon VA, Vernino S. Fulminant autoimmune cortical encephalitis associated with thymoma treated with plasma exchange. Mayo Clin. Proc. 75,1321–1326 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Yu Z, Kryzer TJ, Griesmann GE, Kim K, Benarroch EE, Lennon VA. CRMP-5 neuronal autoantibody: marker of lung cancer and thymoma-related autoimmunity. Ann. Neurol. 49,146-154 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Tani T, Piao Y-S, Mod S et a/. Chorea resulting from paraneoplastic striatal encephalitis. j Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 69,512–515 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosenfeld MR, Dalmau J. The clinical spectrum and pathogenesis of paraneoplastic disorders of the central nervous system. HematoL OncoL Clin. North Am. 15,1109–1128 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka K, Tanaka M, Tsukamoto T, Uehara T, Tsuji S. AntiYo antibody binding to 62-, 52-, or 58-kd protein recognizes a single molecule. Neurology46,1777–1778 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Jaeckle KA, Stroop WG, Greenlee JE, Price M, Deng QS. Intraventricular injection of paraneoplastic antiPurkinje cell antibody in a rat model. Neurology 36,332 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Graus F, Illa I, Aguata M, Ibalta T, Cruz- Sanchez F, Juarez C. Effect of intraventricular injection of antiPurkinje cell antibody (antiYo) in a guinea-pig model. j Neurol. Sci. 106,82–87 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka K, Tanaka M, Onodera O, Igarashi S, Miyatake T, Tsuji S. Passive transfer and active immunization with the recombinant leucine-zipper (Yo) protein as an attempt to establish an animal model of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. j Neurol. Sci. 127, 153–158 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka K, Tanaka M, Igarashi S, Onodera O, Miyatake T, Tsuji S. Trial to establish an animal model of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration with antiYo antibody. 2. Passive transfer of murine mononuclear cells activated with recombinant Yo protein to paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration lymphocytes in severe combined immunodeficiency mice. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 97,101-105 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• •Describes a trial to produce an animal model using patients' IgG, or mononuclear cells of peripheral blood, or CSF.
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Onodera O, Tsuji S. Trial to establish an animal model of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration with antiYo antibody. Mouse strains bearing different MHC molecules produce antibodieson immunization with recombinant Yo protein but do not cause Purkinje cell loss. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 97,95–100 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• •First demonstration of antibody production in mice with four different MHC molecules by active immunization with the recombinant Yo protein.
   Google Scholar
• Greenlee JE, Burns JB, Rose JW, Jaeckle KA, Clawson S. Uptake of systemically administered human anticerebellar antibody by rat Purkinje cells following blood-brain barrier disruption. Acta Neuropathol 89, 341–345 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Tsuji S. No ataxia and no Purkinje cell loss in newborn young of SJL mice with antiYo antibody. Exp. Neurol. 149, 299 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Tsuji S. Activated macrophages in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration with antiYo antibody. Neurodegeneration 2, 299–301 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Albert ML, Austin LM, Darnell RB. Detection and treatment of activated T-cells in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Ann. Neurol 47, 9–17 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• •First description of activated Thl cells in CSF of patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies and of the beneficial effect of Tacrolimus (FK-506).
   Google Scholar
• Maecker HT, Ghanekar SA, Suni M, He X-S, Picker LJ, Maino VC. Factors affecting the efficiency of CD8+ T-cell cross-priming with exogenous antigens. j Immunol 166, 7268–7275 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K. HLA A24 in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration with antiYo antibody. Neurology47, 606–607 (1996)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein K, Horejsi V. Immunology, 2nd ea Blackwell Sci. Oxford, UK (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Rammensee H-G, Friede T, Stevanovic S. MHC ligands and peptide motifs; first listing. Immunogenet 41, 178–228 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• •Provides a list of peptide motifs binding to MHC molecules.
   Google Scholar
• Rammensee H-G, Bachmann J, Stevanovic S. MHV ligands and peptide motifs.Springer, New York, USA (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Davenport ME Hill AVS. Reverse immunogenetics: from HLA-disease associations to vaccine candidates. Md. Med. Today2, 38–45 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Describes a strategy for finding candidate peptides for a vaccination technique, called reverse immunogenetics.
   Google Scholar
• Aidoo M, Lalvani A, Allsopp CEM et al. Identification of conserved antigenic components for a cytotoxic T lymphocyte-inducing vaccine against malaria. Lancet 345, 1003–1007 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubo RT, Sette A, Grey NM et al Definition of specific peptide motifs for four major HLA-A alleles. .1. Immunol. 152, 3913–3924 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Tokiguchu S, Shinozawa K, Tsuji S. Cytotoxic T cells against a peptide from Yo protein in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration with antiYo antibodies. .1. Neuroimmunol, 90, 102 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• •One of the first reports to show CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell activity against peptides of the Yo protein in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies.
   Google Scholar
• Albert M, Darnell JC, Bender A, Francisco LM, Bhardwaj N, Darnell RB. Tumor-specific killer cells in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Nat. Med. 11, 1321–1324 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• •One of the first reports to show CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell activity against peptides of the Yo protein in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies.
   Google Scholar
• Okano HJ, Park WY, Corradi JP, Darnell RB. The cytoplasmic Purkinje onconeural antigen cdR2 downregulates c-Myc function: implications for neuronal and tumor cell survival. Genes Develop. 13, 2087–2097 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Tsuji S et al Cytotoxic T-cell activity against the peptide, AYRARALEL, from Yo protein of patients with the HLA A24 or B27 supertype and paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. .1. Neurol Sci. 188, 61–65 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• •Describes CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell activity against the same peptide of the Yo protein in patients with different HLA class I molecules such as HLA A24 and B7 supertype.
   Google Scholar
• Sette A, Sidney J. Nine major HLA class I supertypes account for the vast preponderance of HLA-A and -B polymorphism. Immunogenetics 50, 201–212 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Provides a list of HLA class I supertypes.
   Google Scholar
• Roitt I, Brostoff J, Male D. Immunology, 6th ed. Mosby, Edinburgh, UK (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K. Are transfectant cells essential for measuring cytotoxic T-cells in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration? Ann. Neurol 49, 686–687 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voltz R, Dalmau J, Posner JB, Rosenfeld MR. T-cell receptor analysis in antiHu associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis. Neurology 51, 1146–1150 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plonquet A, Gherardi RK, Creange A et al Oligoclonal T-cells in blood and target tissues of patients with antiHu syndrome. Neuroimmunol 122, 100–105 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Wanschitz J, Hainfellner J-A, Kristoferitsch W, Drlicek M, Budka H. Ganglionitis in paraneoplastic subacute sensory neuronopathy: A morphologic study. Neurology 49, 1156–1159 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benyahia B, Liblau R, Merle-Beral H, Tourani JM, Dalmau J, Delattre JY. Cell-mediated autoimmunity in paraneoplastic neurological syndromes with antiHu antibodies. Ann. Neurol 45, 162–167 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka K, Tanaka M, Inuzuka T, Nakano R, Tsuji S. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-mediated cell death in paraneoplastic sensory neuronopathy with antiHu antibody. j Neurol Sri. 163, 159–162 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• •First description of cytotoxic T-cell activity against the peptides of the Hu protein in a patient with antiHu syndrome.
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Miyamoto N, Kamakura K. A peptide with the binding motif for the HLA B7 supertype reacts with CD 8-positive cytotoxic T-cells in antiHu syndrome. Biomed. Res. 21, 25–29 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• •First report of a peptide reacting with CD8-positive cytotoxic T-cell activity in a patient with antiHu syndrome.
   Google Scholar
• Venables P, Brookes S. Membrane expression of nuclear antigens: A model for autoimmunity in Sjogren's syndrome? Autoimmun. 13, 321–325 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Reichlin M. Cell injury mediated by autoantibodies to intracellular antigens. Clin. Immunol Immunopathol 76, 215–219 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Conlon P, Oksenberg JR, Zhang J, Steinman L. The immunobiology of multiple sclerosis: An autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Neurobiol Dis. 6, 149–166 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinshenker BG, O'Brien PC, Petterson TM et al. A randomized trial of plasma exchange in acute central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease. Ann. Neurol 46,878–886 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Rensing-Ehl A, Malipiero U, Irmler M, Tschopp J, Constam D, Fontana Neurons induced to express major histocompatibility complex class I antigen are killed via the perforM and not the Fas (APO-1/CD95) pathway. Eur. j Immunol 26,2271–2274 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Kawachi I, Tanaka K, Tanaka M, Tsuji S. Dendritic cells presenting pyruvate kinase M1/M2 isozyme peptide can induce experimental allergic myositis in BALB/c mice. Neumimmunoi 117,108–115 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •First report of a peptide causing myositis in mice by reverse immunogenetics.
   Google Scholar
• Babbe H, Roers A, Waisman A et al. Clonalexpansions of CD8(+) T-cells dominate the T-cell infiltrate in active multiple sclerosis lesions as shown by micromanipulation and single cell polymerase chain reaction. J. Exp. Med. 192,393-404 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsen M, Cepok S, Quak E et al. Oligoclonal expansion of memory CD8+ T-cells in cerebrospinal fluid from multiple sclerosis patients. Brain 125,538–550 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amemiya K, Granger RP, Dalakas MC. Clonal restriction of T-cell receptor expression by infiltrating lymphocytes in inclusion body myositis persists over time. Studies in repeated muscle biopsies. Brain 123,2030–2039 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Bauer J, Bien CG, Lassmann H. Rasmussen's encephalitis: a role for autoimmune cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. CUIT: Opin. Neurol 15,197–200 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Bien CG, Bauer J, Deckwerth TL et al Destruction of neurons by cytotoxic T-cells: a new pathogenic mechanism in Rasmussen's encephalitis. Ann. Neurol. 51, 311–318 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koralnik U, Du Pasquier RA, Kuroda MJ et al Association of prolonged survival in HLA-A2+ progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy patients with a CTL response specific for a commonly recognized JC virus epitope. j Immunol. 168,499–504 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Tokiguchi S, Shinozawa K, Tsuji S. Cytotoxic T cells against a peptide of Yo protein in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibody. J. Neural Sci. 168, 28–31 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• •One of the first reports to show CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell activity against peptides of the Yo protein in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies.
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Tanaka K, Mochizuki H et al. CD8 positive cytotoxic T-cell activity in antiHu antibody positive paraneoplastic neurological syndrome. FASEBJ 15, A1065 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Describes CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell activity against five peptides of the Hu protein in three patients with antiHu syndrome.
   Google Scholar
• Maeda A, Ohguro H, Nabeta Y et al. Identification of human antitumor cytotoxic T-lymphocytes epitopes of recoverin, a cancer-associated retinopathy antigen, possibly related with a better prognosis in a paraneoplastic syndrome. Eur. Immunol. 31,563–572 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •First report of CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell activity against peptides of recoverin in patients with paraneoplastic retinopathy and HLA A24.
   Google Scholar
• Barnett M, Prosser J, Sutton I et al. Paraneoplastic brain stem encephalitis in a woman with anti Ma2 antibody. J. Neural Neurosurg. Psychiatry 70,222–225 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Keime-Guibert F, Graus F, Broet P et al Clinical outcome of patients with antiHu-associated encephalomyelitis after treatment of the tumor. Neurology 53 1719–1723 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Described prognosis of patients with antiHu-associated encephalomyelitis.
   Google Scholar
• Rojas I, Graus F, Keime-Guibert F et al Long-term clinical outcome of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies. Neurology55,713–715 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Reveales the clinical outcome of patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and antiYo antibodies.
   Google Scholar
• Dropcho EJ. Remote neurologic manifestations of cancer. Neurol. Clin. 20, 85–122 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Recent review of clinical findings of paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome.
   Google Scholar
• Antoine JC, Cinotti L, Tilikete C et al [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the diagnosis of cancer in patients with paraneoplastic neurological syndrome and antiHu antibodies. Ann. Neural. 48,105-108 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Hetzel DJ, Stanhope R, O'Neill BP, Lennon VA. Gynecologic cancer in patients with subacute cerebellar degeneration predicted by anti Purkinje cell antibodies and limited in metastatic volume. Mayo Clin. Proc. 65,1558–1563 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Tanaka K, Igarashi S, Yamazaki M, Nakajima T, Miyatake T, Sakai K. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration: Successful early detection and treatment of cancer through characterization of the antiPurkinje cell antibody. Int. Med. 31, 1339–1342 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shevach EM, McHugh RS, Piccirillo CA, Thornton AM. Control of T-cell activation by CD4+ CD25+ suppressor T-cells. Immunol. Rev 182,58–67 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Cortesini R, LeMaoult J, Ciubotariu R, Cortesini NS. CD8+CD28- T suppressor cells and the induction of antigen-specific, antigen-presenting cell-mediated suppression of Th reactivity. Immunol. Rev 182,201–206 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Takahashi K, Miyake S, Kondo T et Natural killer Type 2 bias in remission of multiple sclerosis. J. Clin. Invest. 107, R23-29 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Miyamoto K, Miyake S, Yamamura T. A synthetic glycolipid prevents autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inducing Th2 bias of natural killer T cells. Nature 413,531–534 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Steinman L. Immunotherapy of multiple sclerosis: the end of the beginning. CUIT: Opin. Immunol 13,596–600 (2001)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Summarizes immunotherapy for multiple sclerosis.
   Google Scholar