534
Views
95
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Detection and clinical relevance of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage: an update

, , , , , , & show all

References

  • Grundmann H, Aires-de-Sousa M, Boyce J, Tiemersma E. Emergence and resurgence of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a public-health threat. Lancet 368(9538), 874–885 (2006).
  • Otter JA, French GL. Molecular epidemiology of community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Europe. Lancet Infect. Dis. 10(4), 227–239 (2010).
  • Wertheim HFL, Melles DC, Vos MC et al. The role of nasal carriage in Staphylococcus aureus infections. Lancet Infect. Dis. 5(12), 751–762 (2005).
  • Du J, Chen C, Ding B et al. Molecular characterization and antimicrobial susceptibility of nasal Staphylococcus aureus isolates from a Chinese medical college campus. PLoS ONE 6(11), e27328 (2011).
  • Mertz D, Frei R, Periat N et al. Exclusive Staphylococcus aureus throat carriage: at-risk populations. Arch. Intern. Med. 169(2), 172–178 (2009).
  • Kluytmans JAJW, Wertheim HFL. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and prevention of nosocomial infections. Infection 33(1), 3–8 (2005).
  • Simor AE. Staphylococcal decolonisation: an effective strategy for prevention of infection? Lancet Infect. Dis. 11(12), 952–962 (2011).
  • Verhoeven P, Berthelot P, Chapelle C et al. Letter to the Editor. Staphylococcus aureus screening and decolonization in orthopaedic surgery and reduction of surgical site infections. (Are orthopaedic surgical-site infections definitely prevented by Staphylococcus aureus decolonization? A meta-analysis). Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 471(11), 3709–3711 (2013).
  • Nouwen JL, Fieren MWJA, Snijders S, Verbrugh HA, van Belkum-A. Persistent (not intermittent) nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus is the determinant of CPD-related infections. Kidney Int. 67(3), 1084–1092 (2005).
  • Den Heijer CDJ, van Bijnen EME, Paget WJ et al. Prevalence and resistance of commensal Staphylococcus aureus, including meticillin-resistant S. aureus, in nine European countries: a cross-sectional study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 13(5), 409–415 (2013).
  • Bode LG, Kluytmans JA, Wertheim HF et al. Preventing surgical-site infections in nasal carriers of Staphylococcus aureus. N. Engl. J. Med. 362(1), 9–17 (2010).
  • DeLeo FR, Otto M, Kreiswirth BN, Chambers HF. Community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 375(9725), 1547–1558 (2010).
  • Lebon A, Labout JAM, Verbrugh HA et al. Dynamics and determinants of Staphylococcus aureus carriage in infancy: the Generation R Study. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(10), 3517–3521 (2008).
  • Bogaert D, van Belkum A, Sluijter M et al. Colonisation by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus in healthy children. Lancet 363(9424), 1871–1872 (2004).
  • Sivaraman K, Venkataraman N, Cole AM. Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage and its contributing factors. Future Microbiol. 4, 999–1008 (2009).
  • Dancer SJ. Importance of the environment in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus acquisition: the case for hospital cleaning. Lancet Infect. Dis. 8(2), 101–113 (2008).
  • Davis MF, Iverson SA, Baron P et al. Household transmission of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and other staphylococci. Lancet Infect. Dis. 12(9), 703–716 (2012).
  • Clements A, Halton K, Graves N et al. Overcrowding and understaffing in modern health-care systems: key determinants in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus transmission. Lancet Infect. Dis. 8(7), 427–434 (2008).
  • Fritz SA, Epplin EK, Garbutt J, Storch GA. Skin infection in children colonized with community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Infect. 59(6), 394–401 (2009).
  • Andersen PS, Larsen LA, Fowler VG Jr, Stegger M, Skov RL, Christensen K. Risk factors for Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization in Danish middle-aged and elderly twins. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 32(10), 1311–1316 (2013).
  • Durmaz R, Tekerekoğlu MS, Kalcioğlu T, Ozturan O. Nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among smokers and cigarette factory workers. New Microbiol. 24(2), 142–146 (2001).
  • Olsen K, Falch BM, Danielsen K et al. Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage is associated with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels, gender and smoking status. The Tromsø Staph and Skin Study. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 31(4), 465–473 (2012).
  • Andersen PS, Pedersen JK, Fode P et al. Influence of host genetics and environment on nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in Danish middle-aged and elderly twins. J. Infect. Dis. 206(8), 1178–1184 (2012).
  • Aly R, Maibach HI, Shinefield HR, Mandel AD. Staphylococcus aureus carriage in twins. Am. J. Dis. Child. 126(4), 486–488 (1974).
  • Roghmann M-C, Johnson JK, Stine OC et al. Persistent Staphylococcus aureus colonization is not a strongly heritable trait in Amish families. PLoS ONE 6(2), e17368 (2011).
  • Panierakis C, Goulielmos G, Mamoulakis D, Maraki S, Papavasiliou E, Galanakis E. Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage might be associated with vitamin D receptor polymorphisms in type 1 diabetes. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 13(6), e437–e443 (2009).
  • Claassen M, Nouwen J, Fang Y et al. Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage is not associated with known polymorphism in the Vitamin D receptor gene. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 43(2), 173–176 (2005).
  • Dijstelbloem HM, Scheepers RH, Oost WW et al. Fcgamma receptor polymorphisms in Wegener's granulomatosis: risk factors for disease relapse. Arthritis Rheum. 42(9), 1823–1827 (1999).
  • Van Belkum A, Emonts M, Wertheim H et al. The role of human innate immune factors in nasal colonization by Staphylococcus aureus. Microbes Infect. 9(12–13), 1461–1467 (2007).
  • Emonts M, Uitterlinden AG, Nouwen JL et al. Host polymorphisms in interleukin 4, complement factor H, and C-reactive protein associated with Nasal Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and occurrence of boils. J. Infect. Dis. 197(9), 1234–1243 (2008).
  • Mulcahy ME, Geoghegan JA, Monk IR et al. Nasal colonisation by Staphylococcus aureus depends upon clumping factor B binding to the squamous epithelial cell envelope protein loricrin. PLoS Pathog. 8(12), e1003092 (2012).
  • Weidenmaier C, Goerke C, Wolz C. Staphylococcus aureus determinants for nasal colonization. Trends Microbiol. 20(5), 243–250 (2012).
  • Burian M, Wolz C, Goerke C. Regulatory adaptation of Staphylococcus aureus during nasal colonization of humans. PLoS ONE 5, e10040 (2010).
  • Frank DN, Feazel LM, Bessesen MT, Price CS, Janoff EN, Pace NR. The human nasal microbiota and Staphylococcus aureus carriage. PLoS ONE 5(5), e10598 (2010).
  • Iwase T, Uehara Y, Shinji H et al. Staphylococcus epidermidis Esp inhibits Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and nasal colonization. Nature 465(7296), 346–349 (2010).
  • Roos K, Simark-Mattsson C, Grahn Håkansson E, Larsson L, Sandberg T, Ahrén C. Can probiotic lactobacilli eradicate persistent carriage of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus? J. Hosp. Infect. 78(1), 77–78 (2011).
  • Regev-Yochay G, Dagan R, Raz M et al. Association between carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus in children. JAMA 292(6), 716–720 (2004).
  • Uehara Y, Nakama H, Agematsu K et al. Bacterial interference among nasal inhabitants: eradication of Staphylococcus aureus from nasal cavities by artificial implantation of Corynebacterium sp. J. Hosp. Infect. 44(2), 126–132 (2000).
  • Williams RE. Healthy carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: its prevalence and importance. Bacteriol. Rev. 27, 56–71 (1963).
  • Nouwen JL, Ott A, Kluytmans-Vandenbergh MFQ et al. Predicting the Staphylococcus aureus nasal carrier state: derivation and validation of a “culture rule”. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39(6), 806–811 (2004).
  • Verhoeven PO, Grattard F, Carricajo A et al. An algorithm based on one or two nasal samples is accurate to identify persistent nasal carriers of Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 18(6), 551–557 (2012).
  • Kalmeijer MD, van Nieuwland-Bollen E, Bogaers-Hofman D, de Baere GA. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus is a major risk factor for surgical-site infections in orthopedic surgery. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 21(5), 319–323 (2000).
  • Van Belkum A, Verkaik NJ, de Vogel CP et al. Reclassification of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage types. J. Infect. Dis. 199(12), 1820–1826 (2009).
  • Van Belkum A, Melles DC, Nouwen J et al. Co-evolutionary aspects of human colonisation and infection by Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Genet. Evol. 9(1), 32–47 (2009).
  • Sakwinska O, Blanc DS, Lazor-Blanchet C, Moreillon M, Giddey M, Moreillon P. Ecological temporal stability of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48(8), 2724–2728 (2010).
  • Muthukrishnan G, Lamers RP, Ellis A et al. Longitudinal genetic analyses of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage dynamics in a diverse population. BMC Infect. Dis. 13, 221 (2013).
  • Kluytmans J, van Belkum A, Verbrugh H. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: epidemiology, underlying mechanisms, and associated risks. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 10(3), 505–520 (1997).
  • Eriksen NH, Espersen F, Rosdahl VT, Jensen K. Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus among 104 healthy persons during a 19-month period. Epidemiol. Infect. 115(1), 51–60 (1995).
  • Zanger P, Nurjadi D, Gaile M, Gabrysch S, Kremsner PG. Hormonal contraceptive use and persistent Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage. Clin. Infect. Dis. 55(12), 1625–1632 (2012).
  • Verkaik NJ, de Vogel CP, Boelens HA et al. Anti-staphylococcal humoral immune response in persistent nasal carriers and noncarriers of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Infect. Dis. 199(5), 625–632 (2009).
  • Cole AM, Tahk S, Oren A et al. Determinants of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 8(6), 1064–1069 (2001).
  • Nurjadi D, Herrmann E, Hinderberger I, Zanger P. Impaired β-defensin expression in human skin links DEFB1 promoter polymorphisms with persistent Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage. J. Infect. Dis. 207(4), 666–674 (2013).
  • Zanger P, Nurjadi D, Vath B, Kremsner PG. Persistent nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus is associated with deficient induction of human {beta}-defensin 3 after sterile wounding of healthy skin in vivo. Infect. Immun. 79(7), 2658–2662 (2011).
  • Van den Akker ELT, Nouwen JL, Melles DC et al. Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage is associated with glucocorticoid receptor gene polymorphisms. J. Infect. Dis. 194(6), 814–818 (2006).
  • Manenschijn L, Jetten AM, van Wamel WJB et al. Long-term cortisol levels are not associated with nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 31(1), 97–100 (2012).
  • Lamers RP, Stinnett JW, Muthukrishnan G, Parkinson CL, Cole AM. Evolutionary analyses of Staphylococcus aureus identify genetic relationships between nasal carriage and clinical isolates. PLoS ONE 6(1), e16426 (2011).
  • Verhoeven P, Grattard F, Carricajo A, Pozzetto B, Berthelot P. Better detection of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage by use of nylon flocked swabs. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48(11), 4242–4244 (2010).
  • Van Horn KG, Audette CD, Sebeck D, Tucker KA. Comparison of the Copan ESwab system with two Amies agar swab transport systems for maintenance of microorganism viability. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(5), 1655–1658 (2008).
  • Delacour H, Van Cuyck H, Dubrous P, Soullié B, Leroy P, Koeck JL. Efficacy of a swab transport system in maintaining long-term viability of Staphylococcus aureus. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 65(3), 345–346 (2009).
  • Jones GA, Matthews RB, Cunningham R, Jenks PJ, Leach SJ. Effect of pre-wetting Flocked Swabs on the detection of S. aureus from the nose. Presented at: 110th American Society of Micrbiology General Meeting. San Diego, CA, USA, 23–27 May 2010.
  • Carricajo A, Treny A, Fonsale N et al. Performance of the chromogenic medium CHROMagar Staph aureus and the Staphychrom coagulase test in the detection and identification of Staphylococcus aureus in clinical specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39(7), 2581–2583 (2001).
  • Diederen B, van Duijn I, van Belkum A, Willemse P, van Keulen P, Kluytmans J. Performance of CHROMagar MRSA medium for detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43(4), 1925–1927 (2005).
  • Diederen BMW, van Leest M-L, van Duijn I, Willemse P, van Keulen PHJ, Kluytmans JAJW. Performance of MRSA ID, a new chromogenic medium for detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44(2), 586–588 (2006).
  • Flayhart D, Lema C, Borek A, Carroll KC. Comparison of the BBL CHROMagar Staph aureus agar medium to conventional media for detection of Staphylococcus aureus in respiratory samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42(8), 3566–3569 (2004).
  • Han Z, Lautenbach E, Fishman N, Nachamkin I. Evaluation of mannitol salt agar, CHROMagar Staph aureus and CHROMagar MRSA for detection of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from nasal swab specimens. J. Med. Microbiol. 56(1), 43–46 (2007).
  • Perry JD, Rennison C, Butterworth LA, Hopley ALJ, Gould FK. Evaluation of S. aureus ID, a new chromogenic agar medium for detection of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41(12), 5695–5698 (2003).
  • Jones G, Matthews R, Cunningham R, Jenks P. Comparison of automated processing of flocked swabs with manual processing of fiber swabs for detection of nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 49(7), 2717–2718 (2011).
  • Seng P, Drancourt M, Gouriet F et al. Ongoing revolution in bacteriology: routine identification of bacteria by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49(4), 543–551 (2009).
  • Dalpke AH, Hofko M, Zimmermann S. Comparison of the BD MAX MRSA Assay and the BD GeneOhm MRSA Achromopeptidase Assay for the detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus against direct and enriched culture techniques in clinical specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 50(10), 3365–3367 (2012).
  • Verhoeven PO, Carricajo A, Pillet S et al. Evaluation of the new CE-IVD marked BD MAX Cdiff Assay for the detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile harboring the tcdB gene from clinical stool samples. J. Microbiol. Methods 94(1), 58–60 (2013).
  • Struelens MJ, Hawkey PM, French GL, Witte W, Tacconelli E. Laboratory tools and strategies for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus screening, surveillance and typing: state of the art and unmet needs. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15(2), 112–119 (2009).
  • Tacconelli E, De Angelis G, de Waure C, Cataldo MA, La Torre G, Cauda R. Rapid screening tests for meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at hospital admission: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 9(9), 546–554 (2009).
  • VandenBergh MFQ, Yzerman EPF, van Belkum A, Boelens HAM, Sijmons M, Verbrugh HA. Follow-up of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage after 8 years: redefining the persistent carrier state. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37(10), 3132–3139 (1999).
  • Hamdan-Partida A, Sainz-Espuñes T, Bustos-Martínez J. Characterization and persistence of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from the anterior nares and throats of healthy carriers in a Mexican community. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48(5), 1701–1705 (2010).
  • Melles DC, Pauw E, van den Boogaard L et al. Host-microbe interplay in persistent Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage in HIV patients. Microbes. Infect. 10(2), 150–158 (2008).
  • Verhoeven P, Grattard F, Carricajo A et al. Identification of Staphylococcus aureus persistent nasal carriers in clinical practice by quantification of bacterial load in nasal swab. Presented at: 23rd European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ECCMID). Berlin, Germany, 27–30 April 2013.
  • Verhoeven PO, Grattard F, Carricajo A et al. Quantification by real-time PCR assay of Staphylococcus aureus load: a useful tool for rapidly identifying persistent nasal carriers. J. Clin. Microbiol. 50(6), 2063–2065 (2012).
  • Luedicke C, Slickers P, Ehricht R, Monecke S. Molecular fingerprinting of Staphylococcus aureus from bone and joint infections. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29(4), 457–463 (2010).
  • Monecke S, Luedicke C, Slickers P, Ehricht R. Molecular epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus in asymptomatic carriers. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 28(9), 1159–1165 (2009).
  • Tristan A, Ying L, Bes M, Etienne J, Vandenesch F, Lina G. Use of multiplex PCR to identify Staphylococcus aureus adhesins involved in human hematogenous infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41(9), 4465–4467 (2003).
  • Young BC, Wilson DJ. On the evolution of virulence during Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage. Virulence 3(5), 454–456 (2012).
  • Safdar N, Bradley EA. The risk of infection after nasal colonization with Staphylococcus aureus. Am. J. Med. 121(4), 310–315 (2008).
  • Berthelot P, Grattard F, Cazorla C et al. Is nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus the main acquisition pathway for surgical-site infection in orthopaedic surgery? Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29(4), 373–382 (2010).
  • Kluytmans JAJW, Mouton JW, Ijzerman EPF et al. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus as a major risk factor for wound infections after cardiac surgery. J. Infect. Dis. 171(1), 216–219 (1995).
  • Von Eiff C, Becker K, Machka K, Stammer H, Peters G. Nasal carriage as a source of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 344(1), 11–16 (2001).
  • Durupt F, Mayor L, Bes M et al. Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus toxins and nasal carriage in furuncles and impetigo. Br. J. Dermatol. 157(6), 1161–1167 (2007).
  • Nouwen J, Schouten J, Schneebergen P et al. Staphylococcus aureus carriage patterns and the risk of infections associated with continuous peritoneal dialysis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44(6), 2233–2236 (2006).
  • Perl TM, Cullen JJ, Wenzel RP et al. Intranasal mupirocin to prevent postoperative Staphylococcus aureus infections. N. Engl. J. Med. 346(24), 1871–1877 (2002).
  • Acton DS, Plat-Sinnige MJ, van Wamel W, de Groot N, van Belkum A. Intestinal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: how does its frequency compare with that of nasal carriage and what is its clinical impact? Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 28, 115–127 (2009).
  • Faden H, Lesse AJ, Trask J et al. Importance of colonization site in the current epidemic of staphylococcal skin abscesses. Pediatrics 124(3), e618–e624 (2010).
  • Albrich WC, Harbarth S. Health-care workers: source, vector, or victim of MRSA? Lancet Infect. Dis. 8(5), 289–301 (2008).
  • Jakob HG, Borneff-Lipp M, Bach A et al. The endogenous pathway is a major route for deep sternal wound infection. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 17(2), 153–160 (2000).
  • Muñoz P, Hortal J, Giannella M et al. Nasal carriage of S. aureus increases the risk of surgical site infection after major heart surgery. J. Hosp. Infect. 68(1), 25–31 (2008).
  • Haas JP, Evans AM, Preston KE, Larson EL. Risk factors for surgical site infection after cardiac surgery: the role of endogenous flora. Heart Lung 34(2), 108–114 (2005).
  • Yano K, Minoda Y, Sakawa A et al. Positive nasal culture of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a risk factor for surgical site infection in orthopedics. Acta Orthop. 80(4), 486–490 (2009).
  • Shukla S, Nixon M, Acharya M, Korim MT, Pandey R. Incidence of MRSA surgical-site infection in MRSA carriers in an orthopaedic trauma unit. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 91(2), 225–228 (2009).
  • Kalmeijer MD, Coertjens H, van Nieuwland-Bollen PM et al. Surgical site infections in orthopedic surgery: the effect of mupirocin nasal ointment in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(4), 353–358 (2002).
  • Donker JMW, van der Laan L, Hendriks YJAM, Kluytmans JAJW. Evaluation of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage screening before vascular surgery. PLoS ONE 7(6), e38126 (2012).
  • Fowler VG, Allen KB, Moreira ED et al. Effect of an investigational vaccine for preventing Staphylococcus aureus infections after cardiothoracic surgery: a randomized trial. JAMA 309(13), 1358–1368 (2013).
  • Aktaş E, Pazarli O, Külah C, Cömert F, Külah E, Sümbüloğlu V. Determination of Staphylococcus aureus carriage in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients and evaluation of the clonal relationship between carriage and clinical isolates. Am. J. Infect. Control 39(5), 421–425 (2011).
  • Luzar MA, Coles GA, Faller B et al. Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage and infection in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. N. Engl. J. Med. 322, 505–509 (1990).
  • Kaplowitz LG, Comstock JA, Landwehr DM, Dalton HP, Mayhall CG. A prospective study of infections in hemodialysis patients: patient hygiene and other risk factors for infection. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 9(12), 534–541 (1988).
  • Ena J, Boelaert JR, Boyken LD, Van Landuyt HW, Godard CA, Herwaldt LA. Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus infections in patients on hemodialysis. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 15(2), 78–81 (1994).
  • Tacconelli E, Carmeli Y, Aizer A, Ferreira G, Foreman MG, D'Agata EMC. Mupirocin prophylaxis to prevent Staphylococcus aureus infection in patients undergoing dialysis: a meta-analysis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(12), 1629–1638 (2003).
  • Botelho-Nevers E, Verhoeven P, Paul S et al. Staphylococcal vaccine development: review of past failures and plea for a future evaluation of vaccine efficacy not only on staphylococcal infections but also on mucosal carriage. Expert Rev. Vaccines 20(11), 1249–1259 (2013).
  • Creech CB 2nd, Johnson BG, Alsentzer AR, Hohenboken M, Edwards KM, Talbot TR III. Vaccination as infection control: a pilot study to determine the impact of Staphylococcus aureus vaccination on nasal carriage. Vaccine 28(1), 256–260 (2009).
  • Hedström SA. Recurrent staphylococcal furunculosis. Bacteriological findings and epidemiology in 100 cases. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 13(2), 115–119 (1981).
  • Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin. Infect. Dis. 52(3), 285–292 (2011).
  • Wertheim HFL, Vos MC, Ott A et al. Mupirocin prophylaxis against nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus infections in nonsurgical patients: a randomized study. Ann. Intern. Med. 139(6), 419–425 (2004).
  • Wertheim HF, Vos MC, Ott A et al. Risk and outcome of nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in nasal carriers versus non-carriers. Lancet 364(9435), 703–705 (2004).
  • Harbarth S, Masuet-Aumatell C, Schrenzel J et al. Evaluation of rapid screening and pre-emptive contact isolation for detecting and controlling methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in critical care: an interventional cohort study. Crit. Care. 10(1), R25 (2006).
  • Forster AJ, Oake N, Roth V et al. Patient-level factors associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage at hospital admission: a systematic review. Am. J. Infect. Control. 41(3), 214–220 (2013).
  • Datta R, Huang SS. Risk of infection and death due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in long-term carriers. Clin. Infect. Dis. 47(2), 176–181 (2008).
  • Mertz D, Frei R, Jaussi B et al. Throat swabs are necessary to reliably detect carriers of Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 45(4), 475–477 (2007).
  • Harbarth S, Liassine N, Dharan S, Herrault P, Auckenthaler R, Pittet D. Risk factors for persistent carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31(6), 1370–1375 (2000).
  • Schmid H, Romanos A, Schiffl H, Lederer SR. Persistent nasal methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage in hemodialysis outpatients: a predictor of worse outcome. BMC Nephrol. 14, 93 (2013).
  • Lepelletier D, Lucet J-C. Controlling meticillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus: not simply meticillin-resistant S. aureus revisited. J. Hosp. Infect. 84(1), 13–21 (2013).
  • Huskins WC, Huckabee CM, O'Grady NP et al. Intervention to reduce transmission of resistant bacteria in intensive care. N. Engl. J. Med. 364(15), 1397–1408 (2011).
  • Jain R, Kralovic SM, Evans ME et al. Veterans Affairs initiative to prevent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. N. Engl. J. Med. 364(15), 1409–1420 (2011).
  • Robicsek A, Beaumont JL, Paule SM et al. Universal surveillance for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in 3 affiliated hospitals. Ann. Intern. Med. 147(6), 409–418 (2008).
  • Hacek DM, Paule SM, Thomson RB Jr, Robicsek A, Peterson LR. Implementation of a universal admission surveillance and decolonization program for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) reduces the number of MRSA and total number of S. aureus isolates reported by the clinical laboratory. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47(11), 3749–3752 (2009).
  • Tosh PK, McDonald LC. Infection control in the multidrug-resistant era: tending the human microbiome. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54(5), 707–713 (2012).
  • Qu F, Cui E, Guo T et al. Nasal colonization of and clonal transmission of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus among Chinese military volunteers. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48(1), 64–69 (2010).
  • Peacock SJ, Justice A, Griffiths D et al. Determinants of acquisition and carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in infancy. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41(12), 5718–5725 (2003).
  • Lebon A, Verkaik NJ, de Vogel CP et al. The inverse correlation between Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization in infants is not explained by differences in serum antibody levels in the Generation R Study. Clin. Vaccine. Immunol. 18(1), 180–183 (2011).
  • Hanses F, Huetz T, Reischl U, Ehrenstein BP, Linde H-J, Salzberger B. Lack of evidence for persistent nasal colonization with community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a central European cohort. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 17(3), 466–468 (2011).
  • Munckhof WJ, Nimmo GR, Schooneveldt JM et al. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus, including community-associated methicillin-resistant strains, in Queensland adults. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15(2), 148–154 (2009).
  • Costelloe C, Lovering A, Montgomery A, Lewis D, McNulty C, Hay AD. Effect of antibiotic prescribing in primary care on meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage in community-resident adults: a controlled observational study. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 39(2), 134–140 (2012).
  • S´-Leão R, Sanches IS, Couto I, Alves CR, de Lencastre H. Low prevalence of methicillin-resistant strains among Staphylococcus aureus colonizing young and healthy members of the community in Portugal. Microb. Drug Resist. 7(3), 237–245 (2001).
  • Fritz SA, Hogan PG, Hayek G, et al. Household versus individual approaches to eradication of community-associated Staphylococcus aureus in children: a randomized trial. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54(6), 743–751 (2012).
  • Wertheim HFL, van Kleef M, Vos MC, Ott A, Verbrugh HA, Fokkens W. Nose picking and nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 27(8), 863–867 (2006).
  • Verkade E, van Benthem B, den Bergh MK et al. Dynamics and determinants of Staphylococcus aureus carriage in livestock veterinarians: a prospective cohort study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 57(2), e11–e17 (2013).
  • Cookson B, Bonten MJM, Mackenzie FM et al. Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): screening and decolonisation. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 37(3), 195–201 (2011).
  • Al-Rawahi GN, Schreader AG, Porter SD, Roscoe DL, Gustafson R, Bryce EA. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage among injection drug users: six years later. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(2), 477–479 (2008).
  • Fouéré S, Dion P-L, Casin I et al. Absence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage or infection in a cohort of 300 men who have sex with men attending an inner-city sexually transmitted disease clinic in Paris, France. Dermatology 224(3), 257–261 (2012).
  • Chacko J, Kuruvila M, Bhat GK. Factors affecting the nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Indian J. Med. Microbiol. 27(2), 145–147 (2009).
  • Lipsitch M, Samore MH. Antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance: a population perspective. Emerging Infect. Dis. 8(4), 347–354 (2002).
  • Lucet J-C, Regnier B. Screening and decolonization: does methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus hold lessons for methicillin-resistant S. aureus? Clin. Infect. Dis. 51(5), 585–590 (2010).
  • Parker MG, Doebbeling BN. The challenge of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus prevention in hemodialysis therapy. Semin. Dial. 25(1), 42–49 (2012).
  • Kinsman OS, McKenna R, Noble WC. Association between histocompatability antigens (HLA) and nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Med. Microbiol. 16(2), 215–220 (1983).
  • Ruimy R, Angebault C, Djossou F et al. Are host genetics the predominant determinant of persistent nasal Staphylococcus aureus carriage in humans? J. Infect. Dis. 202(6), 924–934 (2010).
  • Vuononvirta J, Toivonen L, Gröndahl-Yli-Hannuksela K et al. Nasopharyngeal bacterial colonization and gene polymorphisms of mannose-binding lectin and toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in infants. Plos ONE 6(10), e26198 (2011).
  • Johannessen M, Sollid JE, Hanssen A-M. Host and microbe determinants that may influence the success of S. aureus colonization. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol. 2, 56 (2012).
  • Pynnonen M, Stephenson RE, Schwartz K, Hernandez M, Boles BR. Hemoglobin promotes Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization. PLoS Pathog. 7(7), e1002104 (2011).
  • Weidenmaier C, Kokai-Kun JF, Kulauzovic E et al. Differential roles of sortase-anchored surface proteins and wall teichoic acid in Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 298(5–6), 505–513 (2008).
  • Edwards AM, Massey RC, Clarke SR. Molecular mechanisms of Staphylococcus aureus nasopharyngeal colonization. Mol. Oral Microbiol. 27(1), 1–10 (2012).
  • Speziale P, Pietrocola G, Rindi S et al. Structural and functional role of Staphylococcus aureus surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules of the host. Future Microbiol. 4(10), 1327–1342 (2009).
  • Corrigan RM, Miajlovic H, Foster TJ. Surface proteins that promote adherence of Staphylococcus aureus to human desquamated nasal epithelial cells. BMC Microbiol. 9, 22–22 (2009).
  • Fitzgerald JR, Loughman A, Keane F et al. Fibronectin-binding proteins of Staphylococcus aureus mediate activation of human platelets via fibrinogen and fibronectin bridges to integrin GPIIb/IIIa and IgG binding to the FcgammaRIIa receptor. Mol. Microbiol. 59(1), 212–230 (2006).
  • Van Belkum A, Eriksen NHR, Sijmons M et al. Coagulase and protein A polymorphisms do not contribute to persistence of nasal colonisation by Staphylococcus aureus. J. Microbiol. Methods 46(3), 222–232 (1997).
  • Verkaik NJ, Benard M, Boelens HA et al. Immune evasion cluster-positive bacteriophages are highly prevalent among human Staphylococcus aureus strains, but they are not essential in the first stages of nasal colonization. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 17(3), 343–348 (2011).
  • Alexander EL, Morgan DJ, Kesh S et al. Prevalence, persistence, and microbiology of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage among hemodialysis outpatients at a major New York Hospital. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 70(1), 37–44 (2011).
  • Fritz SA, Krauss MJ, Epplin EK et al. The natural history of contemporary Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization in community children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30(4), 349–351 (2011).
  • Souly K, Ait el kadi M, Lahmadi K et al. Epidemiology and prevention of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage in hemodialyzed patients. Med. Mal. Infect. 41(9), 469–474 (2011).
  • Cespedes C, Saïd-Salim B, Miller M et al. The Clonality of Staphylococcus aureus Nasal Carriage. J. Infect. Dis. 191(3), 444–452 (2005).

Websites

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.