Antiretroviral treatment in HIV-infected infants and young children: novel issues raised by the Mississippi baby

References

• UNAIDS. Global report: UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic. 2013. Available from: www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2013/gr2013/UNAIDS_Global_Report_2013_en.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Newell ML, Brahmbhatt H, Ghys PD. Child mortality and HIV infection in Africa: a review. AIDS 2004;18(Suppl 2):S27-34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Global update on HIV treatment 2013: results, impact and opportunities. 2013
   Google Scholar
• Persaud D, Gay H, Ziemniak C, et al. Absence of detectable HIV-1 viremia after treatment cessation in an infant. N Engl J Med 2013;369(19):1828-35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection 2013. Available from: www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/arv2013/en/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Violari A, Cotton MF, Gibb DM, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV-infected infants. N Engl J Med 2008;359(21):2233-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotton MF, Violari A, Otwombe K, et al. Early time-limited antiretroviral therapy versus deferred therapy in South African infants infected with HIV: results from the children with HIV early antiretroviral (CHER) randomised trial. Lancet 2013;382(9904):1555-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents - recommendations for a public health approach: 2010 revision. 2010. Available from: www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/adult2010/en/index.html
   Google Scholar
• WHO. Antiretroviral therapy of HIV infection in infants and children: towards universal access - recommendations for a public health approach. 2006. Available from: www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/paediatric020907.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Denny T, Yogev R, Gelman R, et al. Lymphocyte subsets in healthy children during the first 5 years of life. JAMA 1992;267(11):1484-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shearer WT, Rosenblatt HM, Gelman RS, et al. Lymphocyte subsets in healthy children from birth through 18 years of age: the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group P1009 study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;112(5):973-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross Continents Collaboration for Kids (3Cs4kids) Analysis and Writing Committee. Markers for predicting mortality in untreated HIV-infected children in resource-limited settings: a meta-analysis. AIDS 2008;22(1):97-105
   Google Scholar
• Natural history of vertically acquired human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection. The European Collaborative Study. Pediatrics 1994;94(6 Pt 1):815-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Time from HIV-1 seroconversion to AIDS and death before widespread use of highly-active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative re-analysis. Collaborative Group on AIDS Incubation and HIV Survival including the CASCADE EU Concerted Action. Concerted Action on SeroConversion to AIDS and Death in Europe. Lancet 2000;355(9210):1131-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barnhart HX, Caldwell MB, Thomas P, et al. Natural history of human immunodeficiency virus disease in perinatally infected children: an analysis from the Pediatric Spectrum of Disease Project. Pediatrics 1996;97(5):710-16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HIV Paediatric Prognostic Markers Collaborative Study. Estimating risk of disease progression in HIV-infected children. 2013. Available from: www.hppmcs.org/
   Google Scholar
• Puthanakit T, Saphonn V, Ananworanich J, et al. Early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy for children older than 1 year infected with HIV (PREDICT): a multicentre, randomised, open-label trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2012;12(12):933-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schomaker M, Egger M, Ndirangu J, et al. When to start antiretroviral therapy in children aged 2-5 years: a collaborative causal modelling analysis of cohort studies from southern Africa. PLoS Med 2013;10(11):e1001555
   Google Scholar
• Blanche S, Newell ML, Mayaux MJ, et al. Morbidity and mortality in European children vertically infected by HIV-1. The French Pediatric HIV Infection Study Group and European Collaborative Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1997;14(5):442-50
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wamalwa D, Benki-Nugent S, Langat A, et al. Survival benefit of early infant antiretroviral therapy is compromised when diagnosis is delayed. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012;31(7):729-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goetghebuer T, Haelterman E, Le Chenadec J, et al. Effect of early antiretroviral therapy on the risk of AIDS/death in HIV-infected infants. AIDS 2009;23(5):597-604
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nachman SA, Lindsey JC, Moye J, et al. Growth of human immunodeficiency virus-infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005;24(4):352-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musoke PM, Mudiope P, Barlow-Mosha LN, et al. Growth, immune and viral responses in HIV infected African children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: a prospective cohort study. BMC Pediatr 2010;10:56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutcliffe CG, van Dijk JH, Munsanje B, et al. Weight and height z-scores improve after initiating ART among HIV-infected children in rural Zambia: a cohort study. BMC Infect Dis 2011;11:54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGrath CJ, Chung MH, Richardson BA, et al. Younger age at HAART initiation is associated with more rapid growth reconstitution. AIDS 2011;25(3):345-55
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shiau S, Arpadi S, Strehlau R, et al. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy before 6 months of age is associated with faster growth recovery in South African children perinatally infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr 2013;162(6):1138-45. 1145.e1131-1132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faye A, Le Chenadec J, Dollfus C, et al. Early versus deferred antiretroviral multidrug therapy in infants infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39(11):1692-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiappini E, Galli L, Tovo PA, et al. Virologic, immunologic, and clinical benefits from early combined antiretroviral therapy in infants with perinatal HIV-1 infection. AIDS 2006;20(2):207-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berk DR, Falkovitz-Halpern MS, Hill DW, et al. Temporal trends in early clinical manifestations of perinatal HIV infection in a population-based cohort. JAMA 2005;293(18):2221-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Doare K, Bland R, Newell ML. Neurodevelopment in children born to HIV-infected mothers by infection and treatment status. Pediatrics 2013;130(5):e1326-44
   Google Scholar
• Puthanakit T, Aurpibul L, Louthrenoo O, et al. Poor cognitive functioning of school-aged children in thailand with perinatally acquired HIV infection taking antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2010;24(3):141-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foster CJ, Biggs RL, Melvin D, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcomes in children with HIV infection under 3 years of age. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006;48(8):677-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laughton B, Cornell M, Grove D, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy improves neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants. AIDS 2012;26(13):1685-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puthanakit T, Ananworanich J, Vonthanak S, et al. Cognitive function and neurodevelopmental outcomes in HIV-infected Children older than 1 year of age randomized to early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy: the PREDICT neurodevelopmental study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2013;32(5):501-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell ML, Patel D, Goetghebuer T, Thorne C. CD4 cell response to antiretroviral therapy in children with vertically acquired HIV infection: is it associated with age at initiation? J Infect Dis 2006;193(7):954-62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Picat MQ, Lewis J, Musiime V, et al. Predicting patterns of long-term CD4 reconstitution in HIV-infected children starting antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan Africa: a cohort-based modelling study. PLoS Med 2013;10(10):e1001542
   Google Scholar
• Hutter G, Nowak D, Mossner M, et al. Long-term control of HIV by CCR5 Delta32/Delta32 stem-cell transplantation. N Engl J Med 2009;360(7):692-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allers K, Hutter G, Hofmann J, et al. Evidence for the cure of HIV infection by CCR5Delta32/Delta32 stem cell transplantation. Blood 2011;117(10):2791-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cressey TR, Green H, Khoo S, et al. Plasma drug concentrations and virologic evaluations after stopping treatment with nonnucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors in HIV type 1-infected children. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46(10):1601-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borkowsky W, Yogev R, Muresan P, et al. Structured treatment interruptions (STI) in HIV-1 infected pediatric populations increases interferon gamma production and reduces viremia. Vaccine 2008;26(24):3086-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paediatric European Network for Treatment of AIDS. Response to planned treatment interruptions in HIV infection varies across childhood. AIDS 2010;24(2):231-41
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bunupuradah T, Duong T, Compagnucci A, et al. Outcomes after reinitiating antiretroviral therapy in children randomized to planned treatment interruptions. AIDS 2013;27(4):579-89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wamalwa C, Benki-Nugent S, Langat A, et al. Treatment interruption in infants following 24 months of empiric ART: Kenya. In: 19th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Seattle, WA, USA; 2012
   Google Scholar
• Saez-Cirion A, Bacchus C, Hocqueloux L, et al. Post-treatment HIV-1 controllers with a long-term virological remission after the interruption of early initiated antiretroviral therapy ANRS VISCONTI Study. PLoS Pathog 2013;9(3):1003211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodi S, Meyer L, Kelleher AD, et al. Immunovirologic control 24 months after interruption of antiretroviral therapy initiated close to HIV seroconversion. Arch Intern Med 2012;172(16):1252-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hamlyn E, Ewings FM, Porter K, et al. Plasma HIV viral rebound following protocol-indicated cessation of ART commenced in primary and chronic HIV infection. PLoS ONE 2012;7(8):43754
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steingrover R, Pogany K, Fernandez Garcia E, et al. HIV-1 viral rebound dynamics after a single treatment interruption depends on time of initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2008;22(13):1583-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siliciano JD, Siliciano RF. HIV-1 eradication strategies: design and assessment. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2013;8(4):318-25
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wong JK, Hezareh M, Gunthard HF, et al. Recovery of replication-competent HIV despite prolonged suppression of plasma viremia. Science 1997;278(5341):1291-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finzi D, Hermankova M, Pierson T, et al. Identification of a reservoir for HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Science 1997;278(5341):1295-300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persaud D, Pierson T, Ruff C, et al. A stable latent reservoir for HIV-1 in resting CD4(+) T lymphocytes in infected children. J Clin Invest 2000;105(7):995-1003
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chun TW, Stuyver L, Mizell SB, et al. Presence of an inducible HIV-1 latent reservoir during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94(24):13193-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chun TW, Engel D, Berrey MM, et al. Early establishment of a pool of latently infected, resting CD4(+) T cells during primary HIV-1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95(15):8869-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hocqueloux L, Avettand-Fenoel V, Jacquot S, et al. Long-term antiretroviral therapy initiated during primary HIV-1 infection is key to achieving both low HIV reservoirs and normal T cell counts. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013;68(5):1169-78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ananworanich J, Vandergeeten C, Chomchey N, et al. Early ART intervention restricts the seeding of the HIV reservoir in long-lived central memory CD4 T-cells. In: 20th Annual Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; Atlanta, GA, USA; 2013
   Google Scholar
• Persaud D, Palumbo PE, Ziemniak C, et al. Dynamics of the resting CD4(+) T-cell latent HIV reservoir in infants initiating HAART less than 6 months of age. AIDS 2012;26(12):1483-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luzuriaga K, Chen YH, Ziemniak C, et al. Absent HIV-specific immune responses and replication-competent HIV reservoirs in perinatally infected youth treated from infancy: towards cure. In: 20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; Atlanta, GA, USA; 2013
   Google Scholar
• Luzuriaga K, McManus M, Mofenson L, et al. A trial of three antiretroviral regimens in HIV-1-infected children. N Engl J Med 2004;350(24):2471-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goetghebuer T, Le Chenadec J, Haelterman E, et al. Short- and long-term immunological and virological outcome in HIV-infected infants according to the age at antiretroviral treatment initiation. Clin Infect Dis 2012;54(6):878-81
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Luzuriaga K, McManus M, Catalina M, et al. Early therapy of vertical human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection: control of viral replication and absence of persistent HIV-1-specific immune responses. J Virol 2000;74(15):6984-91
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van der Linden D, Hainaut M, Goetghebuer T, et al. Effectiveness of early initiation of protease inhibitor-sparing antiretroviral regimen in human immunodeficiency virus-1 vertically infected infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007;26(4):359-61
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zanchetta M, Anselmi A, Vendrame D, et al. Early therapy in HIV-1-infected children: effect on HIV-1 dynamics and HIV-1-specific immune response. Antivir Ther 2008;13(1):47-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arrive E, Newell ML, Ekouevi DK, et al. Prevalence of resistance to nevirapine in mothers and children after single-dose exposure to prevent vertical transmission of HIV-1: a meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol 2007;36(5):1009-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockman S, Shapiro RL, Smeaton LM, et al. Response to antiretroviral therapy after a single, peripartum dose of nevirapine. N Engl J Med 2007;356(2):135-47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhn L, Hunt G, Technau K, et al. Pre-treatment drug resistance mutations among HIV+ children <2 years of age who failed or missed PMTCT: Johannesburg, South Africa. In: 20th annual conference on retroviruses and opportunistic infections; Atlanta, GA, USA; 2013
   Google Scholar
• Chakanyuka-Musanhu CC, Penazzato M, Apollo T, et al. World Health Organization HIV drug resistance surveillance in children less than 18 months newly diagnosed with HIV in Zimbabwe. In: 7th IAS conference on HIV pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; 2013
   Google Scholar
• Strehlau R, Coovadia A, Abrams EJ, et al. Lipid profiles in young HIV-infected children initiating and changing antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2012;60(4):369-76
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nachman SA, Lindsey JC, Pelton S, et al. Growth in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children receiving ritonavir-containing antiretroviral therapy. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2002;156(5):497-503
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Palumbo P, Lindsey JC, Hughes MD, et al. Antiretroviral treatment for children with peripartum nevirapine exposure. N Engl J Med 2010;363(16):1510-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Violari A, Lindsey JC, Hughes MD, et al. Nevirapine versus ritonavir-boosted lopinavir for HIV-infected children. N Engl J Med 2012;366(25):2380-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babiker A, Castro nee Green H, Compagnucci A, et al. First-line antiretroviral therapy with a protease inhibitor versus non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor and switch at higher versus low viral load in HIV-infected children: an open-label, randomised phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2011;11(4):273-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulenga V, Cook A, Walker AS, et al. Strategies for nevirapine initiation in HIV-infected children taking pediatric fixed-dose combination “baby pills” in Zambia: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2010;51(9):1081-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Musoke PM, Barlow-Mosha L, Bagenda D, et al. Response to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected Ugandan children exposed and not exposed to single-dose nevirapine at birth. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009;52(5):560-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Judd A. Early antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected infants, 1996-2008: treatment response and duration of first-line regimens. AIDS 2011;25(18):2279-87
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kekitiinwa A, Cook A, Nathoo K, et al. Routine versus clinically driven laboratory monitoring and first-line antiretroviral therapy strategies in African children with HIV (ARROW): a 5-year open-label randomised factorial trial. Lancet 2013;381(9875):1391-403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chasela CS, Hudgens MG, Jamieson DJ, et al. Maternal or infant antiretroviral drugs to reduce HIV-1 transmission. N Engl J Med 2010;362(24):2271-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coovadia HM, Brown ER, Fowler MG, et al. Efficacy and safety of an extended nevirapine regimen in infant children of breastfeeding mothers with HIV-1 infection for prevention of postnatal HIV-1 transmission (HPTN 046): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2012;379(9812):221-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumwenda NI, Hoover DR, Mofenson LM, et al. Extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to reduce breast-milk HIV-1 transmission. N Engl J Med 2008;359(2):119-29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thior I, Lockman S, Smeaton LM, et al. Breastfeeding plus infant zidovudine prophylaxis for 6 months vs formula feeding plus infant zidovudine for 1 month to reduce mother-to-child HIV transmission in Botswana: a randomized trial: the Mashi Study. JAMA 2006;296(7):794-805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick EG, Pinto J, Yogev R, et al. Early initiation of lopinavir/ritonavir in infants less than 6 weeks of age: pharmacokinetics and 24-week safety and efficacy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28(3):215-19
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McArthur MA, Kalu SU, Foulks AR, et al. Twin preterm neonates with cardiac toxicity related to lopinavir/ritonavir therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28(12):1127-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simon A, Warszawski J, Kariyawasam D, et al. Association of prenatal and postnatal exposure to lopinavir-ritonavir and adrenal dysfunction among uninfected infants of HIV-infected mothers. JAMA 2011;306(1):70-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• US FDA Drug Safety Communication. Serious health problems seen in premature babies given Kaletra (lopinavir/ritonavir) oral solution. Silver Spring, MD 2011. Available from: www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/ucm246002.htm
   Google Scholar
• Lee HH, Dineva MA, Chua YL, et al. Simple amplification-based assay: a nucleic acid-based point-of-care platform for HIV-1 testing. J Infect Dis 2010;201(Suppl 1):S65-72
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sherman GG, Jones SA, Coovadia AH, et al. PMTCT from research to reality – results from a routine service. S Afr Med J 2004;94(4):289-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar