Prognostic markers of meningococcal disease in children: recent advances and future challenges

References

• Kirsch EA, Barton RP, Kitchen L, Giroir BP. Pathophysiology, treatment and outcome of meningococcemia: a review and recent experience. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996;15(11):967-79
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstein NE, Perkins BA, Stephens DS, et al. Medical progress: Meningococcal disease. N Engl J Med 2001;344(18):1378-88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Meningococcal meningitis (Fact Sheet). 2012. Available from: www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs141/en
   Google Scholar
• Milonovich LM. Meningococcemia: epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Management. J Pediatr Health Care 2007;21(2):75-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Healy CM, Baker CJ. The future of meningococcal vaccines. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005;24(2):175-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieto-Guevara J, Luciani K, Montesdeoca-Melían A, Mateos-Durán M. Epidemiology of meningococcal disease in the Panamanian pediatric population, 1998-2008. J Infect Dev Ctries 2011;5(5):318-23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrison LH, Trotter CL, Ramsay ME. Review: global epidemiology of meningococcal disease. Vaccine 2009;27(Suppl 2):B51-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Collaborating Centre for Women’s and Children’s Health, Commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Bacterial Meningitis and Meningococcal Septicaemia: Management of Bacterial Meningitis and Meningococcal Septicaemia in Children and Young People Younger than 16 Years in Primary and Secondary Care. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists; London, UK: 2010. p. 276
   Google Scholar
• Blanco-Quirós A, Casado Flores J, Nieto Moro M, et al. Meningococcal sepsis in pediatrics. Parameters associated with poor outcome. An Pediatr 2004;61(4):305-13
   Google Scholar
• Casado-Flores J, Blanco-Quirós A, Nieto M, et al. Prognostic utility of the semi-quantitative procalcitonin test, neutrophil count and C-reactive protein in meningococcal infection in children. Eur J Pediatr 2006;165(1):26-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hatherill M, Tibby SM, Turner C, et al. Procalcitonin and cytokine levels: relationship to organ failure and mortality in pediatric septic shock. Crit Care Med 2000;28(7):2591-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrol ED, Newland P, Thomson APJ, Hart CA. Prognostic value of procalcitonin in children with meningococcal sepsis. Crit Care Med 2005;33(1):224-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marzouk O, Bestwick K, Thomson APJ, et al. Variation in serum C-reactive protein across the clinical spectrum of meningococcal disease. Acta Paediatr 1993;82(9):729-33
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gendrel D, Moulin F, Lorrot M, et al. Comparison of procalcitonin with C-reactive protein, interleukin 6 and interferon-alpha for differentiation of bacterial vs. viral infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18(10):875-81
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van der Kaay DCM, De Kleijn ED, De Rijke YB, et al. Procalcitonin as a prognostic marker in meningococcal disease. Intensive Care Med 2002;28(11):1606-12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Groot R, Kornelisse RF, Hazelzet JA, et al. Meningococcal septic shock in children: clinical and laboratory features, outcome, and development of a prognostic score. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25(3):640-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wells LC, Smith JC, Collier J, et al. The child with a non-blanching rash: how likely is meningococcal disease? Arch Dis Child 2001;85(3):218-22
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Donoso FA, León B J, Rojas AG, et al. The value of leukopenia during the first hour of admission as a prognostic marker in meningococcal infection. Rev Chil Pediatr 2004;75(5):441-7
   Google Scholar
• Demissie DE, Kaplan SL, Romero JR, et al. Altered Neutrophil Counts at Diagnosis of Invasive Meningococcal Infection in Children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2013;32(10):1070-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandtzaeg P, Joo GB, Brusletto B, Kierulf P. Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 and 2, alpha-2-antiplasmin, plasminogen, and endotoxin levels in systemic meningococcal disease. Thromb Res 1990;57(2):271-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hermans PW, Hazelzet JA, De Groot R, et al. 4G/5G promoter polymorphism in the plasminogen-activator-inhibitor-1 gene and outcome of meningococcal disease. Lancet 1999;354(9178):556-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandtzaeg P, Sandset PM, Joo GB, et al. The quantitative association of plasma endotoxin, antithrombin, protein C, extrinsic pathway inhibitor and fibrinopeptide A in systemic meningococcal disease. Thromb Res 1989;55(4):459-70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fijnvandraat K, Derkx B, Peters M, et al. Coagulation activation and tissue necrosis in meningococcal septic shock: severely reduced protein C levels predict a high mortality. Thromb Haemost 1995;73(1):15-20
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Emonts M, De Bruijne EL, Guimarães AH, et al. Thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor is associated with severity and outcome of severe meningococcal infection in children. J Thromb Haemost 2008;6(2):268-76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Deuren M, Van Der Meer JW, Brandtzaeg P. Update on meningococcal disease with emphasis on pathogenesis and clinical management. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000;13(1):144-66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleijn ED, Joosten KF, Rijn BV, et al. Low serum cortisol in combination with high adrenocorticotrophic hormone concentrations are associated with poor outcome in children with severe meningococcal disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002;21(4):330-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Woensel JB, Biezeveld MH, Alders AM, et al. Adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels in relation to inflammatory response and disease severity in children with meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis 2001;184(12):1532-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brandtzaeg P, Kierulf P, Gaustad P, et al. Plasma endotoxin as a predictor of multiple organ failure and death in systemic meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis 1989;159(2):195-204
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Read TE, Harris HW, Grunfeld C, et al. The protective effect of serum lipoproteins against bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Eur Heart J 1993;14(Suppl K):125-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Leeuwen HJ, Van Beek AP, Dallinga-Thie GM, et al. The role of high density lipoprotein in sepsis. Neth J Med 2001;59(3):102-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermont CL, den Brinker M, Kâkeci N, et al. Serum lipids and disease severity in children with severe meningococcal sepsis. Crit Care Med 2005;33(7):1610-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermont CL, Hazelzet JA, Kleijn ED, et al. CC and CXC chemokine levels in children with meningococcal sepsis accurately predict mortality and disease severity. Crit Care 2006;10(1):R33-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrol ED, Thomson AP, Jones AP, et al. A predominantly anti-inflammatory cytokine profile is associated with disease severity in meningococcal sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2005;31(10):1415-19
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sprong T, Van Der Ven-Jongekrijg J, Van Der Meer JW, et al. Influence of innate cytokine production capacity on clinical manifestation and severity of pediatric meningococcal disease. Crit Care Med 2009;37(10):2812-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman JM, Sacchettini J, Marks C, Marks WH. Human intestinal fatty acid binding protein: report of an assay with studies in normal volunteers and intestinal ischemia. Surgery 1997;121(3):335-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelsers MM, Glatz JF, Hermens WT. Fatty acid-binding proteins as plasma markers of tissue injury. Clin Chim Acta 2005;352(1-2):15-35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derikx JP, Poeze M, Van Bijnen AA, et al. Evidence for intestinal and liver epithelial cell injury in the early phase of sepsis. Shock 2007;28(5):544-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Derikx JP, Bijker EM, Vos GD, et al. Gut mucosal cell damage in meningococcal sepsis in children: relation with clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 2010;38(1):133-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moraga Llop FA. editor. La enfermedad meningocócica. Pasado, presente y futuro. Grafiques Montseny; Sant Hilari Sacalm (Girona):Spain: 2013
   Google Scholar
• Brouwer MC, van de Beek D, Read RC. Host genetics and outcome in meningococcal disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2010;10(4):262-74
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Geishofer G, Binder A, Müller M, et al. 4G/5G promoter polymorphism in the plasminogen-activator-inhibitor-1 gene in children with systemic meningococcaemia. Eur J Pediatr 2005;164(8):486-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder A, Müller M, Zenz W, et al. 4G4G genotype of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 promoter polymorphism associates with disseminated intravascular coagulation in children with systemic meningococcemia. J Thromb Haemost 2007;5(10):2049-54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haralambous E, Hibberd ML, Levin M, et al. Role of functional plasminogen-activator-inhibitor-1 4G/5G promoter polymorphism in susceptibility, severity, and outcome of meningococcal disease in Caucasian children. Crit Care Med 2003;31(12):2788-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermans PW, Hazelzet JA. Plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 gene polymorphism and sepsis. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:S453-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bernard GR, Ely EW, Vincent JL, et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2001;344(10):699-709
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishimura M, Saito M, Ohga S, et al. Fulminant sepsis/meningitis due to haemophilus influenzae in a protein C-deficient heterozygote treated with activated protein C therapy. Eur J Pediatr 2009;168(6):673-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Domingo P, Baraldès MA, Barquet N, et al. Relevance of genetically determined host factors to the prognosis of meningococcal disease. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004;23(8):634-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barquet N, Domingo P, Caylà JA, et al. Prognostic factors in meningococcal disease. Development of a bedside predictive model and scoring system. Barcelona Meningococcal Disease Surveillance Group. JAMA 1997;278(6):491-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Faber J, Henninger N, Zepp F, et al. A toll-like receptor 4 variant is associated with fatal outcome in children with invasive meningococcal disease. Acta Paediatr 2009;98(3):548-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders MS, Ouburg S, Morré SA, et al. Toll-like receptor 9 polymorphisms are associated with severity variables in a cohort of meningococcal meningitis survivors. BMC Infect Dis 2012;12:112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Well GT, Sanders MS, van Furth AM, et al. Polymorphisms in toll-like receptors 2, 4, and 9 are highly associated with hearing loss in survivors of bacterial meningitis. PLoS One 2012;7(5):e35837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janeway CA Jr, Travers P, Walport M, et al. Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th edition. Garland Science; New York, USA: 2001
   Google Scholar
• Fijen CAP, Kuijper EJ, Van De Heuvel MM, et al. Heterozygous and homozygous factor H deficiency states in a Dutch family. Clin Exp Immunol 1996;105(3):511-16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nielsen HE, Christensen KC, Koch C, et al. Hereditary, complete deficiency of complement factor H associated with recurrent meningococcal disease. Scand J Immunol 1989;30(6):711-18
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haralambous E, Dolly SO, Hibberd ML, et al. Factor H, a regulator of complement activity, is a major determinant of meningococcal disease susceptibility in UK Caucasian patients. Scand J Infect Dis 2006;38(9):764-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollack MM, Ruttimann UE, Getson PR. Pediatric risk of mortality (PRISM) score. Crit Care Med 1988;16(11):1110-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leteurtre S, Leclerc F, Martinot A, et al. Can generic scores (Pediatric Risk of Mortality and Pediatric Index of Mortality) replace specific scores in predicting the outcome of presumed meningococcal septic shock in children? Crit Care Med 2001;29(6):1239-46
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silva PS, Fonseca MC, Iglesias SB, et al. Comparison of two different severity scores (Paediatric Risk of Mortality [PRISM] and the Glasgow Meningococcal Sepsis Prognostic Score [GMSPS]) in meningococcal disease: preliminary analysis. Ann Trop Paediatr 2001;21(2):135-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castellanos-Ortega Á, Delgado-Rodríguez M. Comparison of the performance of two general and three specific scoring systems for meningococcal septic shock in children. Crit Care Med 2000;28(8):2967-73
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Riordan FA, Marzouk O, Thomson AP, et al. Prospective validation of the Glasgow Meningococcal Septicaemia Prognostic Score. Comparison with other scoring methods. Eur J Pediatr 2002;161(10):531-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thomson AP, Sills JA, Hart CA. Validation of the Glasgow Meningococcal Septicemia Prognostic Score: a 10-year retrospective survey. Crit Care Med 1991;19(1):26-30
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grupo de trabajo de la Guía de Práctica Clínica sobre el Manejo de la Enfermedad Meningocócica Invasiva. Guía de Práctica Clínica sobre el Manejo de la Enfermedad Meningocócica Invasiva. Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad. Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud; Guías de Práctica Clínica en el SNS: IACS Nº 2011/01. 2013
   Google Scholar
• Alves AC, Wright VJ, Perumal K, et al. A new scoring system derived from platelet count and base deficit at presentation predicts mortality in paediatric meningococcal sepsis. Crit Care (London, England) 2013;17(2):R68-8
   Google Scholar
• Peters MJ, Ross-Russell RI, White D, et al. Early severe neutropenia and thrombocytopenia identifies the highest risk cases of severe meningococcal disease. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2001;2(3):225-31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silva PS, Iglesias SB, Nakakura CH, et al. The product of platelet and neutrophil counts (PN product) at presentation as a predictor of outcome in children with meningococcal disease. Ann Trop Paediatr 2007;27(1):25-30
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• EUCLIDS. Available from: www.euclids-project.eu
   Google Scholar