133
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Current use of anti-infectives in dermatology

, , &
Pages 557-591 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Goldberg DM. The cephalosporins. Med. Clin. North Am. 71, 1113–1133 (1987).
  • Neu HC. The new β-lactamase-stable cephalosporins. Ann. Intern. Med. 97, 408–419 (1982).
  • Epstein ME, Amodio-Groton M, Sadick NS. Antimicrobial agents for the dermatologist. I. β-lactam antibiotics and related compounds. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 37, 149–165 (1997).
  • Sadick NS. Systemic antibiotic agents. Dermatol. Clinics 19, 1–21 (2001).
  • Johnson JD. The cephalosporins in dermatologic practice. Int. J. Dermatol. 25, 427–430 (1986).
  • Stewart C. Current management of common skin and soft tissue infections: cellulitis, folliculitis, mammalian bites, and puncture wounds – year 2001 update. Emergency Medicine Consensus Reports 1–16 (2001).
  • McCarty J, Ruoff GE, Jacobson KD. Loracarbef (LY163892) versus cefaclor in the treatment of bacterial skin and skin-structure infections in an adult population. Am. J. Med. 92(Suppl. 6A), S80–S85 (1992).
  • Gordin FM, Wofsy CB, Mills J. Once-daily ceftriaxone for skin and soft tissue infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 27, 648–649 (1985).
  • Ison CA, Mouton JW, Jones K, Fenton KA, Livermore DM. Which cephalosporin for gonorrhoea? Sex. Transm. Infect. 80, 386–388 (2004).
  • Buening MK, Wold JS, Israel KS et al. Disulfiram-like reactions to β-lactams. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 245, 2027 (1981).
  • Lopez AJ, O’Keefe PO, Morrissey M, Pickleman J. Ceftriaxone-induced cholelithiasis. Ann. Intern. Med. 115, 712–714 (1991).
  • Brittain DC. Erythromycin. Med. Clin. North Am. 71, 1147–1154 (1987).
  • Epstein ME, Amodio-Groton M, Sadick NS. Antimicrobial agents for the dermatologist. II. Macrolides, fluoroquinolones, rifamycins, tetracyclines, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, and clindamycin. J. Am. Acad. Derm. 37, 365–381 (1997).
  • Bahal N, Nahata MC. The new macrolide antibiotics: azithromycin, clarithromycin, dirithromycin, and roxithromycin. Ann. Pharmacother. 26, 46–55 (1992).
  • Luft BJ, Dattwyler RJ, Johnson RC et al. Azithromycin compared with amoxicillin in the treatment of erythema migrans. A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 124, 785–791 (1996).
  • Retsema A, Girard A, Schelkly W et al. Spectrum and mode of action of azithromycin (CP-62,993), a new 15-membered-ring macrolide with improved potency against Gram-negative organsims. 31, 1939–1947 (1987).
  • Bauernfeind A. In vitro activity of dirithromycin in comparison with other new and established macrolides. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 31(Suppl. 3), 39–49 (1993).
  • Barry AL, Jones RN, Thornsberry C. In vitro activities of azithromycin (CP 62,993), clarithromycin (A-56268; TE-031), erythromycin, roxithromycin, and clindamycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32, 752–754 (1988).
  • Dobson RL, Belknap BS. Topical erythromycin solution in acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 3, 478–482 (1980).
  • Lesher JL Jr, Chalker DK, Smith JG Jr et al. An evaluation of a 2% erythromycin ointment in the topical therapy of acne vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 12, 526–531 (1985).
  • Lassus A. Comparative studies of azithromycin in skin and soft-tissue infections and sexually transmitted infections by neisseria and chlamydia species. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 25(Suppl. A), 115–121 (1990).
  • Steingrimsson O, Olafsson JH, Thorarinsson H, Ryan RW, Johnson RB, Tilton RC. Azithromycin in the treatment of sexually transmitted disease. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 25(Suppl. A), 109–114 (1990).
  • Kim Y-S, Yun H-J, Shim SK, Koo SH, Kim SY, Kim SA. Comparative trial of a single dose of azithromycin versus doxycycline for the treatment of mild scrub typhus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39, 1329–1335 (2004).
  • Fernandez-Obregon AC. Azithromycin for the treatment of acne. Int. J. Dermatol. 39(1), 45–50 (2000).
  • Kapadia N, Talib A. Acne treated successfully with azithromycin. Int. J. Dermatol. 43, 766–767 (2004).
  • Bakar O, Demircay Z, Gurbuz O. Therapeutic potential of azithromycin in rosacea. Int. J. Dermatol. 43, 151–154 (2004).
  • Parish LC. Clarithromycin in the treatment of skin and skin structure infections: two multicenter clinical studies. Int. J. Dermatol. 32, 528–532 (1993).
  • Franck N, Cabie A, Villette B, Amor B, Lessana-Leibowitch M, Escande J-P. Treatment of Mycobacterium chelonae-induced skin infection with clarithromycin. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 28, 1019–1021 (1993).
  • Wasilewski MM, Wilson MG, Sides GD, Stotka JL. Comparative efficacy of 5 days of dirithromycin and 7 days of erythromycin in skin and soft tissue infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 46, 255–262 (2000).
  • Clark G. Drug interactions and anti-infective therapies. Am. J. Med. 106, 227–237 (1999).
  • Piscitelli SC, Danziger LH, Rodvold KA. Clarithromycin and azithromycin: new macrolide antibiotics. Clin. Pharm. 11, 137–152 (1992).
  • Amacher DE, Schomaker SJ, Retsema JA. Comparison of the effects of the new azalide antibiotic azithromycin and erythromycin estolate on rat liver cytochrome P-450. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35, 1186–1190 (1991).
  • Lindstrom T, Hanssen B, Wrighton S. Cytochrome P450 complex formation by dirithromycin and other macrolides in rat and human livers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37, 265–269 (1993).
  • Hooper DC, Wolfson JS. Fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agents. N. Engl. J. Med. 324, 384–394 (1991).
  • Gentry LO. Therapy with newer oral β-lactam and quinolone agents for infections of the skin and skin structures: a review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 14, 285–297 (1992).
  • LaRosa SP, Tomecki KJ. Antibiotics: what’s new? Cutis 73(Suppl. 5), 10–14 (2004).
  • Tarshis GA, Miskin BM, Jones TM et al. Once-daily gatifloxacn versus oral levofloxacin in treatment of uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections: double-blind, multicenter, randomized study. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45, 2358–2362 (2001).
  • Parish LC, Routh HB, Miskin B et al. Moxifloxacin versus cephalexin in the treatment of uncomplicated skin infections. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 54, 497–503 (2001).
  • Schweiger ES, Weinberg JM. Novel antibacterial agents for skin and skin structure infections. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 50, 331–340 (2004).
  • Stein GE. Drug interactions with fluoroquinolones. Am. J. Med. 91 (Suppl. 6A), S81–S86 (1991).
  • Smith CR. The adverse effects of fluoroquinolones. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 19, 709–712 (1987).
  • Fillastre JP, Leroy A, Moulin B et al. Pharmacokinetics of quinolones in real insufficiency. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 26(Suppl. B), 51–60 (1990).
  • Saravolatz LD, Leggett J. Gatifloxacin, gemifloxacin, and moxifloxacin: the role of 3 newer fluoroquinolones. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37, 1210–1215 (2003).
  • Karchmer AW. Fluoroquinolone treatment of skin and skin structure infections. Drugs 58(Suppl. 2), 82–84 (1999).
  • Gentry LO. Review of quinolones in the treatment of infections of the skin and skin structure. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 28(Suppl. C), 97–110 (1991).
  • Muijsers RBR, Jarvis B. Moxifloxacin. Drugs 62, 967–973 (2002).
  • Grasela TH, Dreis MW. An evaluation of the quinolone–theophylline interaction using the food and drug administration spontaneous sorting system. Arch. Intern. Med. 152, 617–621 (1992).
  • Jolson HM, Tanner LA, Green L, Grasela TH Jr. Adverse reaction reporting of interaction between warfarin and fluoroquinolones. Arch. Intern. Med. 151, 1003–1004 (1991).
  • Lowe NJ, Fakouhi TD, Stern RS, Bourget T, Roniker B, Swabb EA. Photoreactions with a fluoroquinolone antimicrobial: evening versus morning dosing. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 56, 587–591 (1994).
  • Wijnands WJA, Vree TB, Van Herwaarden CLA. The influence of quinolone derivatives on theophylline clearance. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 22, 677–683 (1986).
  • Baker SE, Hangii MC. Possible gatifloxacin-induced hypoglycemia. Ann. Pharmacother. 36, 1722–1726 (2002).
  • Donaldson AR, Vandiver JR, Finch CK. Possible gatifloxacin-induced hyperglycemia. Ann. Pharmacother. 38, 602–605 (2004).
  • Quigley CA, Lederman JR. Possible gatifloxacin-induced seizure. Ann. Pharmacother. 38, 235–237 (2004).
  • Ansari SR, Chopra N. Gatifloxacin and prolonged QT interval. Am. J. Med. Sci. 327(1), 55–56 (2004).
  • Tsankov NK, Kamarashev JA. Rifampin in dermatology. Int. J. Dermatol. 32, 401–406 (1993).
  • Sensi P. History of the development of rifampin. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5(Suppl. 3), S402–S406 (1983).
  • Wehrli W. Rifampin: mechanisms of action and resistance. Rev. Infect. Dis. 59(Suppl. 3), S407–S411 (1983).
  • Acocella G. Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of rifampin in humans. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5(Suppl. 3), S428–S432 (1983).
  • Borcherdin SM, Baciewicz AM, Self TH. Update on rifampin drug interactions II. Arch. Intern. Med. 152, 711–716 (1992).
  • Joshi RK, Nambiar PMK. Dermal leishmaniasis and rifampicin. Int. J. Dermatol. 28, 612–614 (1989).
  • Gamea AM, El-Tatawi FAY. The effect of rifampicin on rhinoscleroma: an electron microscopic study. J. Laryngol. Otol. 104, 772–777 (1990).
  • Hoss DM, Feder HM Jr. Addition of rifampin to conventional therapy for recurrent furunculosis. Arch. Dermatol. 131, 647–648 (1995).
  • Wheat LJ, Kohler RB, White AL, White A. Effect of rifampin on nasal carriers of coagulase-positive staphylococci. J. Infect. Dis. 144, 177 (1981).
  • Bachs L, Pares A, Elena M, Piera C, Rodes J. Effects of long-term rifampicin administration in primary biliary cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 102, 2077–2080 (1992).
  • Grosset J, Leventis S. Adverse effects of rifampin. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5, S440–S446 (1983).
  • Klein NC, Cunha BA. Tetracyclines. Med. Clin. North Am. 79, 789–801 (1995).
  • Francke EL, Neu HC. Chloramphenicol and tetracyclines. Med. Clin. North Am. 71, 1155–1168 (1987).
  • Chaffins ML, Collison D, Fivenson DP. Treatment of pemphigus and linear IgA dermatosis with nicotinamide and tetracycline: a review of 13 cases. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 28, 998–1000 (1993).
  • Zemtsov A, Neldner KH. Successful treatment of dermatitis herpetiformis with tetracycline and nicotinamide in a patient unable to tolerate dapsone. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 28, 505–506 (1993).
  • Skidmore R, Kovach R, Walker C et al. Effects of subantimicrobial-dose doxycycline in the treatment of moderate acne. Arch. Dermatol. 139, 459–464 (2003).
  • Cunliffe WJ, Grosshans E, Belaich S, Meynadier J, Alirezai M, Thomas LA. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of lymecycline and minocycline in patients with moderately severe acne vulgaris. Eur. J. Dermatol. 8, 161–166 (1998).
  • Neuvonen PJ, Pentilla O, Lehtovaara R et al. Effect of anti-epileptic drugs on the elimination of various tetracycline derivatives. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 9, 147 (1975).
  • Searcy RL, Simms MN, Foreman JA et al. Evaluation of the blood clotting mechanism in tetracycline-treated patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 4, 179 (1964).
  • Bacon JF, Chenfield GM. Pregnancy attributable to interaction between tetracyclines and oral contraceptives. Br. Med. J. 280, 293 (1980).
  • Andersen WK, Feingold DS. Adverse drug interactions clinically important for the dermatologist. Arch. Dermatol. 131, 468–473 (1995).
  • Golub LM, Lee HM, Lehrer G et al. Minocycline reduces gingival collagenolytic activity during diabetes: preliminary observations and a proposed new mechanism of action. J. Periodontal. Res. 18, 516–526 (1983).
  • Golub LM, McNamara TF, D’Angelo G, Greenwald RA, Ramamurthy NS. A nonantibacterial chemically modified tetracycline inhibits mammalian collagenase activity. J. Dent. Res. 66, 1310–1314 (1987).
  • Golub LM, Lee HM, Ryan ME. Giannobile WV, Payne J, Sorsa T. Tetracyclines inhibit connective tissue breakdown by multiple nonantimicrobial mechanisms. Adv. Dent. Res. 12, 12–26 (1998).
  • Schroeder K, Lee H, Wolff M, Ramamurthy N, Golub L. Low-dose tetracyclines (TCs) decreases elastas and β-glucuronidase activities in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF). J. Dent. Res. 69, 245 (1990).
  • Schroeder KL, Ramamurthy NS, Szczepaneck KA et al. Low-dose doxycycline prevents attachment loss in adult periodontitis. J. Dent. Res. 71, 758 (1992).
  • Periostat®, package insert. Collegenex Pharmaceuticals Inc., Newtown, PA, USA (2001).
  • Shalita AR, Lee WL. Inflammatory acne. Dermatol. Clin. 1, 361–364 (1983).
  • Webster GF, McGinley KJ, Leyden JJ. Inhibition of lipase production in Propionibacterium acnes by subminimal-inhibitory concentrations of tetracycline and erythromycin. Br. J. Dermatol. 104, 453–457 (1981).
  • Webster GF, Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ, McArthur WP. Suppression of polymorphonuclear leukocyte chemotactic factor production in Propionibacterium acnes by subminimal-inhibitory concentrations of tetracycline, ampicillin, minocycline and erythromycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 21, 770–772 (1982).
  • Weinberg MA. New applications of doxycline hyclate in medicine & dentistry. US Pharm. (2004).
  • Del Rosso JQ. A status report on the use of subantimicrobial-dose doxycycline: a review of the biologic and antimicrobial effects of the tetracyclines. Cutis 74, 118–122 (2004).
  • Bikowski JB. Subantimicrobiual dose doxycyclione for acne and rosacea. Skinmed. 1–12 (2003).
  • Grossman ER, Walchek A, Freedman H. Tetracycline and permanent teeth: the relationship between doses and tooth involvement. Pediatrics 47, 567 (1971).
  • Guillon J-M, Joly P, Autran B, Denis M, Akoun G, Debre P, Mayaud C. Minocycline-induced cell-mediated hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Ann. Intern. Med. 117, 476–481 (1992).
  • Matsuura T, Shimizu Y, Fujimoto H, Miyazaki T, Kano S. Minocycline-related lupus. Lancet 340, 1553 (1992).
  • Katz J, Barak S, Shemer J, Langevitz P, Livneh A. Black tongue associated with minocycline therapy. Arch. Dermatol. 131, 620 (1995).
  • Knowles SR, Shapiro L, Shear NH. Serious adverse reactions induced by minocycline. Arch. Dermatol. 132, 934–939 (1996).
  • Thibault M-J, Billick RC, Srolovitz H. Minocycline-induced sweet’s syndrome. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 27, 801–804 (1992).
  • Falagas ME, Gorbach SL. Clindamycin and metronidazole. Med. Clin. North Am. 79, 845–867 (1995).
  • Smilack JD, Wilson WR, Cockerill FR. Tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, clindamycin, and metronidazole. Mayo Clin. Proc. 66, 1270–1280 (1991).
  • Panzer JD, Brown DC, Epstein WL, Lipson RL, Mahaffey HW, Atkinson WH. Clindamycin levels in various body tissues and fluids. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 12, 259–262 (1972).
  • McGehee RF Jr, Smith CB, Wilcox C, Finland M. Comparative studies of antibacterial activity in vitro and absorption and excretion of lincomycin and clinimycin. Am. J. Med. Sci. 256, 279–292 (1968).
  • Klainer AS. Clindamycin. Med. Clin. North Am. 71, 1169–1175 (1987).
  • Klempner MS, Styrt B. Prevention of recurrent staphylococcal skin infections with low-dose oral clindamycin therapy. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 260, 2682–2685 (1988).
  • Becker LE, Bergstresser PR, Whiting DA et al. Topical clindamycin therapy for acne vulgaris. Arch. Dermatol. 117, 482–485 (1981).
  • Lookingbill DP, Chalker DK, Lindholm JS et al. Treatment of acne with a combination clindamycin/benzoyl peroxide gel compared with clindamycin gel, benzoyl peroxide gel, and vehicle gel: combined results of two double-blind investigations. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 37, 590–595 (1997).
  • Ellis CN, Leyden J, Katz HI et al. Therapeutic studies with a new combination benzoyl peroxide/clindamycin topical gel in acne vulgaris. Cutis 67, 13–20 (2001).
  • Cunliffe WJ, Holland KT, Bojar R, Levy SF. A randomized, double-blind comparison of a clindamycin phosphate/benzoyl peroxide gel formulation and a matching clindamycin gel with respect to microbiologic activity and clinical efficacy in the topical treatment of acne vulgaris. Clin. Ther. 24, 1117–1133 (2002).
  • Wolf JE Jr, Kaplan D, Kraus SJ et al. Efficacy and tolerability of combined topical treatment of acne vulgaris with adapalene and clindamycin: a multicenter, randomized, investigator-blinded study. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 49, S211–S217 (2003).
  • Bartlett JG. Antimicrobial agents implicated in Clostridium difficile toxin-associated diarrhea or colitis. Johns Hopkins Med. J. 149, 6–9 (1981).
  • Smilack JD. Trimethoprim–sulfametoxazole. Mayo Clin. Proc. 74, 730–734 (1999).
  • Hitchings GH. Mechanism of action of trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole-I. J. Infect. Dis. 128(Suppl.), S433–S436 (1973).
  • Burchall JJ. Mechanism of action of trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole-II. J. Infect. Dis. 128(Suppl.), S437–S441 (1973).
  • Cockerill FR, Edson RS. Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole. Mayo Clin. Proc. 66, 1260–1269 (1991).
  • Smego RA Jr, Moeller MB, Gallis HA. Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole therapy for nocardia infections. Arch. Intern. Med. 143, 711–718 (1983).
  • Gold WL, Salit IE. Aeromonas hydrophila infections of skin and soft tissue: report of 11 cases and review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16, 69–74 (1993).
  • Chaowagul W, Simpson AJH, Suputtamongkol Y, Smith MD, Angus BJ, White NJ. A comparison of chloramphenicol, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, and doxycycline with doxycycline alone as maintenance therapy for melioidosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29, 375–380 (1999).
  • Margileth AM. Antibiotic therapy for cat-scratch disease: clinical study of therapeutic outcome in 268 patients and a review of the literature. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 11, 474–478 (1992).
  • Cotterill JA, Cunliffe WJ, Williamson B. The effect of trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole on sebum excretion rate and biochemistry in acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 85, 130–133 (1971).
  • Floris-Moore MA, Amodio-Groton MI, Catalano MT. Adverse reactions to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in AIDS. Ann. Pharmacother. 37, 1810–1813 (2003).
  • Alappan R, Perazella MA, Buller GK. Hyperkalemia in hospitalized patients treated with trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole. Ann. Intern. Med. 124, 316–320 (1996).
  • Walker DC, Cohen PR. Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole-associated acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis; case report and review of drug-induced sweet’s syndrome. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 34, 918–923 (1996).
  • Blumenfeld H, Cha J-H, Cudkowicz ME. Trimethoprim and sulfonamide-associated meningoencephalitis with MRI correlates. Neurology 46, 556–558 (1996).
  • Arbeit RD, Maki D, Tally FP, Campanaro E, Eisenstein BI, and the Daptomycin 98–01 and 99–01 Investigators. The safety and efficacy of daptomycin for the treatment of complicated skin and skin-structure infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, 1673–1681 (2004).
  • Snydman DR, Jacobus NV, McDermott LA, Lonks JR, Boyce JM. Comparative in vitro activities of daptomycin and vancomycin against resistant Gram-positive pathogens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44, 3447–3450 (2000).
  • Moelering RC Jr. Linezolid: the first oxazolidinone antimicrobial. Ann. Intern. Med. 138, 135–142 (2003).
  • Dresser LD, Rybak M. The pharmacologic and bacteriologic properties of oxazolidinones, a new class of synthetic antimicrobials. Pharmacotherapy 18, 456–462 (1998).
  • Plouffe JF. Emerging therapies for serious Gram-positive bacterial infections: a focus on linezolid. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31(Suppl. 4), S144–S149 (2000).
  • Green SL, Maddox JC, Huttenbach ED. Linezolid and reversible myelosuppression. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 285, 1291 (2001).
  • Stevens DL, Smith LG, Bruss JB et al. Randomized comparison of linezolid (PNU-100766) versus oxacillin–dicloxacillin for treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44, 3408–3413 (2000).
  • Moellering RC Jr. A novel antimicrobial agent joins the battle against resistant bacteria. Ann. Intern. Med. 130, 155–157 (1999).
  • Raghavan M, Linden PK. Newer treatment options for skin and soft tissue infections. Drugs 64, 1621–1642 (2004).
  • Aumercier M, Bouhallab S, Capmau M-L, Le Goffic F. RP 59500: a proposed mechanism for its bactericidal activity. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 30(Suppl. A), 9–14 (1992).
  • Bergeron M, Montay G. The pharmacokinetics of quinupristin/dalfopristin in laboratory animals and humans. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 39(Suppl. A), 129–138 (1997).
  • Drew RH, Perfect JR, Srinath L, Kurkimilis E, Dowzicky M, Talbot GH. Treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections with quinupristin–dalfopristin in patients intolerant of or failing prior therapy. J. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46, 775–784 (2000).
  • Seltzer E, Dorr MB, Goldstein BP, Perry M, Dowell JA, Henkel T, and the Dalbavancin Skin and Soft-Tissue Infection Study Group. Once-weekly dalbavancin versus standard-of-care antimicrobial regimens for treatment of skin and soft-tissue infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37, 1298–1303 (2003).
  • Candiani G, Abbondi M, Borgonovi M, Romano G, Parenti F. In vitro and in vivo antibacterial activity of BI 397, a new semi-synthetic glycopeptide antibiotic. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 44, 179–192 (1999).
  • Zeckel ML, Preston DA, Allen BS. In vitro activities of LY333328 and comparative agents against nosocomial Gram-positive pathogens collected in a 1997 global surveillance study. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44, 1370–1374 (2000).
  • Harland S, Tebbs E, Elliott TSJ. Evaluation of the in vitro activity of the glycopeptide antibiotic LY333328 in comparison with vancomycin and teicoplanin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 41, 273–276 (1998).
  • Milatovic D, Schmitz F-J, Verhoef J, Fluit AC. Activities of the glycylcycline tigecycline (GAR-936) against 1,924 recent European clinical bacterial isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47, 400–404 (2003).
  • Postier RG, Green SL, Klein SR, Ellis-Grosse EJ, Loh E. Results of a multicenter, randomized, open-label efficacy and safety study of two doses of tigecycline for complicated skin and skin-structure infections in hospitalized patients. Clin. Ther. 26, 704–714 (2004).
  • Goldstein EJC, Reinhardt JF, Murray PM, Finegold SM. Outpatient therapy of bite wounds: demographic data, bacteriology, and a prospective, randomized trial of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid versus penicillin +/- dicloxacillin. Int. J. Dermatol. 26, 123–127 (1987).
  • Keating MR. Antiviral agents for non-human immunodeficiency virus infections. Mayo Clin. Proc. 74, 1266–1283 (1999).
  • Brown TJ, Vander Straten M, Tyring SK. Antiviral agents. Dermatol. Clin. 19(1), 23–34 (2001).
  • Darby G. Acyclovir and beyond. J. Int. Med. Res. 22(Suppl. 1), A33–A42 (1994).
  • Brown TJ, McCrary M, Tyring SK. Antiviral agents: nonantiviral drugs. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 47, 581–599 (2002).
  • Acosta EP, Fletcher CV. Valacyclovir. Ann. Pharmacother. 31, 185–191 (1997).
  • Nilsen AE, Aasen T, Halsos AM et al. Efficacy of oral acyclovir in the treatment of initial and recurrent genital herpes. Lancet 2, 571–573 (1982).
  • Reichman RC, Badger GJ, Mertz GJ, Corey L, Richman DD, Connor JD et al. Treatment of recurrent genital herpes simplex infections with oral acyclovir: a controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 251(16), 2103–2107 (1984).
  • Spruance SL, Nett R, Marbury T, Wolff R, Johnson J, Spaulding T. Acyclovir cream for treatment of herpes simplex labialis: results of two randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled, multicenter clinical trials. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46, 2238–2243 (2002).
  • Cohen JI. Recent advances in varicella-zoster virus infection. Ann. Intern. Med. 130, 922–932 (1999).
  • Wallace MR, Bowler WA, Murray NB, Brodine SK, Oldfield EC III. Treatment of adult varicella with oral acyclovir: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 117, 358–363 (1992).
  • Huff JC, Bean B, Balfour HH Jr et al. Therapy of herpes zoster with oral acyclovir. Am. J. Med. 85(Suppl. 2A), 84–89 (1988).
  • Wood MJ, Kay R, Dworkin RH, Soong S-J, Whitley RJ. Oral acyclovir therapy accelerates pain resolution in patients with herpes zoster: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22, 341–347 (1996).
  • Liesegang TJ. Diagnosis and therapy of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 98, 1216–1229 (1991).
  • Cobo LM, Foulks GN, Liesegang T et al. Oral acyclovir in the treatment of acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 93, 763–770 (1986).
  • Harding SP, Porter SM. Oral acyclovir in herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Curr. Eye Res. 10, 177–182 (1991).
  • Van Landingham KE, Marsteller HB, Ross GW, Hayden FG. Relapse of herpes simplex encephalitis after conventional acyclovir therapy. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 259(7), 1051–1053 (1988).
  • Brown TJ, Vander Straten M, Tyring SK. Antiviral agents. Dermatol. Clin. 19(1), 23–34 (2001).
  • Spruance SL, Tyring SK, DeGregorio B, Miller C, Beutner K, and the Valaciclovir Study Group. A large-scale, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging trial of peroral valaciclovir for episodic treatment of recurrent herpes genitalis. Arch. Intern. Med. 156, 1729–1735 (1998).
  • Reitano M, Tyring S, Lang W et al., and the Internaional Valaciclovir HSV Study Group. Valaciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus infection: a large-scale dose range-finding study. J. Infect. Dis. 178, 603–610 (1996).
  • Beutner KR, Friedman DJ, Forszpaniak C, Andersen PL, Wood MJ. Valaciclovir compared with acyclovir for improved therapy for herpes zoster in immunocompetent adults. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39, 1546–1553 (1995).
  • Weinberg A, Bate BJ, Masters HB et al. In vitro activities of penciclovir and acyclovir against herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36, 2037–2038 (1992).
  • Spruance SL, Rea TL, Thoming C, Tucker R, Saltzman R, Boon R. Penciclovir cream for the treatment of herpes simplex labialis. A randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 277, 1374–1379 (1997).
  • Raborn GW, Martel AY, Lassonde M, Lewis MAO, Boon R, Spruance SL. Effective treatment of herpes simplex labialis with penciclovir cream. Combined results of two trials. J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 133, 303–309 (2002).
  • Spruance SL, Rowe NH, Raborn GW, Thibodeau EA, D’Ambrosio JA, Bernstein DI. Peroral famciclovir in the treatment of experimental ultraviolet radiation-induced herpes simplex labialis: a double-blind, dose-ranging, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. J. Infect. Dis. 179, 303–310 (1999).
  • Sacks SL, Aoki FY, Diaz-Mitoma F, Sellors J, Shafran SD. Patient-initiated, twice-daily oral famciclovir for early recurrent genital herpes: a randomized, double-blind multicenter trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 276, 44–49 (1996).
  • Diaz-Mitoma F, Sibbald RG, Shafran SD, Boon R, Saltzman RL. Oral famciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes. a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 280, 887–892 (1998).
  • Tyring S, Barbarash RA, Nahlik JE et al, and the Collaborative Famciclovir Herpes Zoster Study Group. Famciclovir for the treatment of acute herpes zoster: effects on acute disease and postherpetic neuralgia. a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 123, 89–96 (1995).
  • Gross G. Therapy of human papillomavirus infection and associated epithelial tumors. Intervirology 40, 368–377 (1997).
  • Conant MA. Immunomodulatory therapy in the management of viral infections in patients with HIV infection. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 43, S27–S30 (2000).
  • Dockrell DH, Kinghorn GR. Imiquimod and resiquimod as novel immunomodulators. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 48, 751–755 (2001).
  • Arican O, Guneri F, Bilgic K, Karaoglu A. Topical imiquimod 5% cream in external anogenital warts: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Dermatol. 31, 627–631 (2004).
  • Wallace MR, Chamberlin CJ, Sawyer MH et al. Treatment of adult varicella with sorivudine: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J. Infect. Dis. 174, 249–255 (1996).
  • Keam SJ, Chapman TM, Figgit DP. Brivudin (bromovinyl deoxyuridine). Drugs 64, 2091–2097 (2004).
  • Drake LA, Dinehart SM, Farmer ER et al. Guidelines of care for superficial mycotic infections of the skin: tinea corporis, tinea cruris, tinea faciei, tinea manuum, and tinea pedis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 34, 282–286 (1996).
  • Ryder NS. Terbinafine: mode of action and properties of the squalene epoxidase inhibitors. Br. J. Dermatol. 126, 2–7 (1992).
  • Hazen KC. Fungicidal versus fungistatic activity of terbinafine and itraconazole: an in vitro comparison. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38(5), S37–S41 (1998).
  • Leyden J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacology of terbinafine and itraconazole. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 35(5), S42–S47 (1998).
  • Balflour JA, Faulds D. Terbinafine. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmakinetic properties, and theraputic potential in superficial mycoses. Drugs 43(2), 259–284 (1992).
  • Jensen JC. Clinical pharmacokinetics of terbinafine (Lamisil). Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 14, 110–113 (1989).
  • Lever LR, Dykes PJ, Thomas R et al. How orally administered Terbinafine reaches the stratum corneum. J. Dermatol. Treat. 1, 23–25 (1990).
  • Faergemann J, Zehender H, Jones T et al. Terbinafine levels in serum, stratum corneum, dermis-epidermis (without stratum corneum), hair, sebum, and eccrine sweat during and after 250 mg terbinafine orally in men. J. Invest. Dermatol. 24, 523 (1994).
  • Vickers AE, Sinclair JR, Zollinger M et al. Multiple cytochrome P-450s involved in the metabolism of terbinafine suggest a limited potential for drug–drug interactions. Drug Metab. Dispos. 27(9), 1029–1038 (1999).
  • Sais G, Juggla A, Peryi J. Prevalence of dermatophyte onychomycosis in Spain: a cross-sectional study. Br. J. Dermatol. 132, 758–761 (1995).
  • Roberts DT. Prevalence of dermatophyte onychomycosis in the United Kingdom: results of an omnibus survey. Br. J. Dermatol. 126(39), 23–27 (1992).
  • Heikkila H, Stubb S. The prevalence of onychomycosis in Finland. Br. J. Dermatol. 133, 699–703 (1995).
  • Heikkila H, Stubb S. Long-term results in patients with terbinafine or itraconazole. Br. J. Dermatol. 146(2), 250–253 (2002).
  • Schatz F, Brautigam M, Dobrowolski E et al. Nail incorporation kinetics of terbinafine in onychomycosis patients. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 20, 377–383 (1995).
  • Smith EB, Stein LF, Fivenson DP, Atillasoy ES. Clinical trial: the safety of terbinafine in patients over the age of 60 years: a multicenter trial in onychomycosis of the feet. Int. J. Dermatol. 39(11), 861–864 (2000).
  • Gupta AK, Konnikov N, Lynde CW. Single-blind, randomized, prospective study on terbinafine and itraconazole in the for the treatment of dermatophyte toenail onychomycosis in the elderly. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 44(3), 479–484 (2001).
  • Herranz P, Garcia J, De Lucas R et al. Toenail onychomycosis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome: treatment with terbinafine. Br. J. Dermatol. 137(4), 577–580 (1997).
  • Cribier BJ, Bakshi. Terbinafine in the treatment of onychomycosis: a review of its efficacy in high-risk populations and in patients with nondermatophyte infections. Br. J. Dermatol. 150, 414–420 (2004).
  • McClellan KJ, Wiseman LR, Markmham A. Terbinafine. An update of its use in superficial mycoses. Drugs 58(1), 179–202 (1999).
  • Evans EG, Sigurgeirsson B. Double blind, randomized study of continuous terbinafine compared with intermittent itraconazole in treatment of toenail onychomycosis. The LION study group. Br. Med. J. 318, 1031–1035 (1999).
  • Sigurgeirsson B, Olafsson JH, Steinsson JB et al. Long-term effectiveness of treatment with terbinafine vs. itraconazole in onychomycosis: a 5-year blinded prospective follow-up study. Arch. Dermatol. 138(3), 353–357 (2002).
  • Haugh M, Helou S, Boissel JP, Cribier BJ. Terbinafine in fungal infections of the nails: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Br. J. Dermatol. 147(1), 118–121 (2002).
  • De Cutper C, Hindryckx PHFB. Long-term outcomes in the treatment of toenail onychomycosis. Br. J. Dermatol. 141(56), 15–20 (1999).
  • Warshaw EM, Bowman T, Bodman MA et al. Satisfaction with onychomycosis treatment. Pulse versus continuous dosing. J. Am. Podiatr. Med. Assoc. 93(5), 373–379 (2003).
  • Brautigam M, Nolting S, Scopf RE, Weidinger G. Randomized double blind comparison of terbinafine and itraconazole for treatment of toenail tinea infection. Seventh Lamisil German Onychomycosis Study Group. Br. Med. J. 311, 919–922 (1995).
  • De Backer M, De Vroey C, Lesaffre E et al. Twelve weeks of continuous oral therapy for toenail onychomycosis caused by dermatophytes: a double-blind comparative trial of terbinafine 250 mg/day versus itraconazole 200 mg/day. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38(5 Pt 3), S57–S63 (1998).
  • Degreef H, del Palacio A, Mygind S et al. Randomized double-blind comparison of short-term itraconazole and terbinafine therapy for toenail onychomycosis. Acta Derm. Venereol. 79(3), 221–223 (1999).
  • Drake LA, Shear NH, Arlette JP et al. Oral terbinafine in the treatment of toenail onychomycosis: North American multicenter trial. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 37(5), 740–745 (1997).
  • Zaias N, Rebell G. The successful treatment of Trichophyton rubrum nail bed (distal subungual) onychomycosis with intermittent pulse-dosed terbinafine. Arch. Dermatol. 140(6), 691–695 (2004).
  • Tosti A, Piraccini BM, Stinchi C, Venturo N, Bardazzi F, Colombo MD. Treatment of dermatophyte nail infections: an open randomized study comparing intermittent terbinafine therapy with continuous terbinafine treatment and intermittent itraconazole therapy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 34, 595–600 (1996).
  • Alpsoy E, Yilmaz E, Basaran E. Intermittent therapy with terbinafine for dermatophyte toe-onychomycosis: a new approach. J. Dermatol. 23, 259–262 (1996).
  • Gupta AK, Lynde CW, Konnikov N. Single-blind, randomized prospective study of sequential itraconazole and terbinafine pulse compared with terbinafine pulse for the treatment of toenail onychomycosis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 44, 485–491 (2001).
  • Abdel-Rahman SM, Nahata MC. Oral terbinafine: a new antifungal agent. Ann. Pharmacother. 31(4), 445–446 (1997).
  • Segal R, Kritzman A, Cividalli L et al. Treatment of candida nail infection with terbinafine. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 35(6), 958–961 (1996).
  • Gupta AK, Gregurek-Novak T. Efficacy of itraconazole, terbinafine, fluconazole, griseofulvin, and ketoconazole in the treatment of Scopulariopsis brevicaulis causing onychomycosis of the toes. Dermatology 202(3), 235–238 (2001).
  • Gupta AK, Gregurek-Novak T, Konnikov N et al. Itraconazole and terbinafine treatment of some nondermatophyte molds causing onychomycosis of the toes and a review of the literature. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 5(3), 206–210 (2001).
  • Lebwohl MG, Daniel CR, Leyden J et al. Efficacy and safety of terbinafine for nondermatophyte and mixed nondermatophyte and dermatophyte toenail onychomycosis. Int. J. Dermatol. 40(5), 358–360 (2001).
  • Gupta AK, Shear NH. Terbinafine: an update. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 37(6), 979–988 (1997).
  • Denning DW, Evans EGV, Kibbler CC et al. Fungal nail disease: a guide to good practice (report of a working group of the British Society for Medical Mycology). Br. Med. J. 311, 1277–1281 (1995).
  • Binder M, Nell G. Oral terbinafine (Lamisil) in the short-term treatment of fungal infections of the skin: results of a post-marketing surveillance study. Mycoses 42(9–10), 555–558 (1999).
  • White JE, Perkins PJ, Evans EG. Successful 2-week treatment with terbinafine (Lamisil) for moccasin tinea pedis and tinea manuum. Br. J. Dermatol. 123(3), 260–262 (1991).
  • Savin RC. Oral terbinafine versus griseofulvin in the treatment of moccasin-type tinea pedis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 23(4 Pt 2), 807–809 (1990).
  • Barnetson RS, Marley J, Bullen M et al. Comparison of one week of oral terbinafine (250 mg/day) with four weeks of treatment with clotrimazole 1% cream in interdigital tinea pedis. Br. J. Dermatol. 139(4), 675–678 (1998).
  • Scaparro E, Quadri G, Virno G et al. Evaluation of the efficacy and tolerability of oral terbinafine (Daskil) in patients with seborrheic dermatitis. A multicentre, randomized, investigator-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Br. J. Dermatol. 144, 854–857 (2001).
  • Villars V, Jones T. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of terbinafine (Lamisil) – a new and systemic fungicidal treatment of dermatomycoses. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 14, 124–127 (1989).
  • Jung EG, Haas PJ, Brautigham M et al. Systemic treatment of skin candidiasis: a randomized comparison of terbinafine and ketoconazole. Mycoses 37, 361–365 (1994).
  • Elewski BE. Treatment of tinea capitis: beyond griseofulvin. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 40(6 Pt 2), S27–S30 (1999).
  • Gupta AK, Adam P, Dlova N et al. Theraputic options for the treatment of tinea capitis caused by Trichophyton species: griseofulvin versus the new oral antifungal agents, terbinafine, itraconazole, and fluconazole. Pediatr. Dermatol. 18(5), 433–438 (2001).
  • Silm H, Karelson M. Terbinafine: efficacy and tolerability in young children with tinea capitis due to microsporum canis. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 16(3), 228–230 (2002).
  • Lipozencic J, Skerlev M, Orofino-Costa R et al. A randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, duration-finding study of oral terbinafine and open-label, high-dose griseofulvin in children with tinea capitis due to microsporum species. Br. J. Dermatol. 146(5), 816–823 (2002).
  • Caceres-Rios H, Rueda M, Ballona R, Bustamante B. Comparison of terbinafine and griseofulvin in the treatment of tinea capitis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 42(1 Pt 1), 80–84 (2000).
  • Koumantaki E, Kakourou T, Ralli E et al. Double dose of oral terbinafine is required for Microsporum canis tinea capitis. Pediatr. Dermatol. 18(4), 339–342 (2001).
  • Gupta AK, Sibbald RG, Lynde CW et al. Onychomycosis in children: prevalence and treatment strategies. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 36, 395–402 (1997).
  • Hay RJ. Theraputic potential of terbinafine in subcutaneous and systemic mycoses. Br. J. Dermatol. 141(56), 36–40 (1999).
  • Hull PR, Vismer HF. Treatment of cutaneous sporotrichosis with terbinafine. Br. J. Dermatol. 126, 51–55 (1992).
  • Gip L. Black piedra: the first case treated with terbinafine (Lamisil). Br. J. Dermatol. 130, 26–28 (1994).
  • Chapman SW, Pappas P, Kauffmann C et al. Comparative evaluation of the efficacy and safety of two doses of terbinafine (500 and 100 mg day) in the treatment of cutaneous or lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis. Mycoses 47(1–2), 62–68 (2004).
  • Sullivan DPO. Terbinafine: tolerability in general medical practice. Br. J. Dermatol. 141(56), 21–25 (1999).
  • Challa A, Suvannasankha A, Nayere Z, Santiago M. Terbinafine-associated hepatotoxicity. Am. J. Med. Sci. 325(5), 292–295 (2003).
  • Gupta AK, Shear NH. A risk–benefit assessment of the newer oral antifungal agents used to treat onychomycosis. Drug Saf. 22(1), 33–52 (2000).
  • Pauluzzi P, Boccucci N. Inverse psoriasis induced by terbinafine. Acta Derm. Venereol. 79(5), 389 (1999).
  • Shapiro M, Li LJ, Miller J. Terbinafine-induced neutropenia. Br. J. Dermatol. 140(6), 1196–1997 (1999).
  • Grunwald MH. Thrombocytopenia associated with oral terbinafine. Int. J. Dermatol. 37(8), 634 (1998).
  • Papa CA, Miller OF. Pustular psoriasiform eruption with leukocytosis associated with terbinafine. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 39(1), 115–117 (1998).
  • O’sullivan DP, Needham CA, Bangs A et al. Postmarketing surveillance of oral terbinafine in the UK: report of a large cohort study. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 42(5), 559–565 (1996).
  • Murphy M, Barnes L. Terbinafine-induced lupus erythematosus. Br. J. Dermatol. 138(4), 708–709 (1998).
  • Gupta AK, Soori GS, Del Rosso JQ, Bartos PB, Shear NH. Severe neutropenia associated with oral terbinafine therapy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38(5 Pt 1), 765–767 (1998).
  • Torrens JK, McWhinney PH. Parotid swelling and terbinafine. Br. Med. J. 316, 440–441 (1997).
  • Kempinaire A, De Raeve L, Merckx M, De Coninck A, Bauwens M, Roseeuw D. Terbinafine-induced acute generalized exanthematuous pustulosis confirmed by a positive patch-test result. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 37(4), 653–655 (1997).
  • Gupta AK, Sibbald RG, Knowles SR, Lynde CW, Shear NH. Terbinafine therapy may be associated with the development of psoriasis de novo or its exacerbation: four case reports and a review of drug-induced psoriasis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 36(5 Pt 2), 858–862 (1997).
  • Stricker BH, Van Riemsdijk MM, Sturkenboom MC, Ottervanger JP. Taste loss to terbinafine: a case-control study of potential risk factors. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 42(3), 313–318 (1996).
  • Gupta AK, Gonder JR, Shear NH, Dilworth GR. The development of green vision in association with terbinafine therapy. Arch. Dermatol. 132(7), 845–846 (1996).
  • Munn SE, Russell Jones R. Terbinafine and fixed drug eruption. Br. J. Dermatol. 133(5), 815–816 (1995).
  • Wach F, Stolz W, Hein R, Landthaler M. Severe erythema annulare centrifugum-like psoriatic drug eruption induced by terbinafine. Arch. Dermatol. 131(8), 960–961 (1995).
  • Todd P, Halpern S, Munro DD. Oral terbinafine and erythema multiforme. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 20(3), 247–248 (1995).
  • Kovacs MJ, Alshammari S, Guenther L, Bourcier M. Neutropenia and pancytopenia associated with oral terbinafine. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 31(5 Pt 1), 806 (1994).
  • Carstens J, Wendelboe P, Sogaard H, Thestrup-Pedersen K. Toxic epidermal necrolysis and erythema multiforme following therapy with terbinafine. Acta Derm. Venereol. 74(5), 391–392 (1994).
  • Rzany B, Mockenhaupt M, Gehring W, Schopf E. Stevens–Johnson syndrome after terbinafine therapy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 30(3), 509 (1994).
  • Teraki Y, Shiohara T. Spontaneous tolerance to terbinafine-induced lichenoid drug eruption. Dermatology 208(1), 81–82 (2004).
  • Lombardo M, Cerati M, Pazzaglia A. Acute generalized exanthematuous pustulosis induced by terbinafine. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 49(1), 158–159 (2003).
  • Taberner R, Puig L, Gilaberte M, Alomar A. Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis induced by terbinafine. Eur J. Dermatol. 13(3), 313–314 (2003).
  • Zapata Garrido AJ, Romo AC, Padilla FB. Terbinafine hepatotoxicity. A case report and review of literature. Ann. Hepatol. 2(1), 47–51 (2003).
  • Ajit C, Suvannasankha A, Zaeri N, Munoz SJ. Terbinafine-associated hepatotoxicity. Am. J. Med. Sci. 325(5), 292–295 (2003).
  • Hill VA, Chow J, Cowley N, Marsden RA. Subacute lupus erythematosus-like eruption due to terbinafine: report of three cases. Br. J. Dermatol. 148(5), 1056 (2003).
  • Szepietowski JC. Terbinafine exacerbates psoriasis: case report with a literature review. Acta Derm. Venereol. Croat. 11(1), 17–21 (2003).
  • Anania FA, Rabin L. Terbinafine hepatotoxicity resulting in chronic biliary ductopenia and portal fibrosis. Am. J. Med. 112(9), 741–742 (2002).
  • Richert B, Uhoda I, De la Brassinne M. Hair loss after terbinafine treatment. Br. J. Dermatol. 145(5), 842 (2002).
  • Lemont H, Sabo M. Terbinafine-associated taste disturbance with normal taste threshold scores. J. Am. Podiatr. Med. Assoc. 91(10), 540–541 (2001).
  • Callen JP, Hughes AP, Kulp-Shorten C. Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus induced or exacerbated by terbinafine: a report of 5 cases. Arch. Dermatol. 137(9), 1196–1198 (2001).
  • Conjeevaram G, Vongthavaravat V, Sumner R, Koff RS. Terbinafine-induced hepatitis and pancytopenia. Dig. Dis. Sci. 46(8), 1714–1716 (2001).
  • van Puijenbroek EP, Egberts AC, Meyboom RH, Leufkens HG. Association between terbinafine and arthralgia, fever and urticaria: symptoms or syndrome? Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 10(2), 135–142 (2001).
  • Chitturi S, Farrell GC. Drug-induced cholestasis. Semin. Gastrointest. Dis. 12(2), 113–124 (2001).
  • Weaver TD, Jespersen DL. Multiple onychocryptosis following treatment of onychomycosis with oral terbinafine. Cutis 66(3), 211–212 (2001).
  • Aksalkal BA, Ozsoy E, Arnavit O, Ali Gurer M. Oral terbinafine-induced bullous pemphigoid. Ann. Pharmacother. 37(11), 1625–1627 (2003).
  • Gupta AK, Katz I, Shear NH. Drug interactions with itraconazole, fluconazole, and terbinafine and their management. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 41(2), 237–245 (1999).
  • Katz HI. Drug interactions of the newer oral antifungals. Br. J. Dermatol. 141(56), 26–32 (1999).
  • Smith EB. The treatment of dermatophytosis: safety considerations. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 43, S113–S119 (2000).
  • Shapiro LE, Shear NH. Drug interactions: proteins, pumps, and P-450s. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 47(4), 467–484 (2002).
  • Madani S, Barilla D, Cramer J, Wang Y, Paul C. Effect of terbinafine on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of desipramine in healthy volunteers identified as cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP 2D6) extensive metabolizers. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 42(11), 1211–1218 (2002).
  • O’Reardon JP, Hetznecker JM, Rynn MA, Baldassano CF, Szuba MP. Desipramine toxicity with terbinafine. Psychiatry 159(6), 1076 (2002).
  • Van Der Kuy PH, Van Den Heuvel HA, Kempen RW, Vanmolkot LM. Pharmacokinetic interaction between nortriptyline and terbinafine. Ann. Pharmacother. 36(11), 1712–1714 (2002).
  • Goeteyn V, Naeyaert JM, Lambert J et al. Is systemic autoimmune disease a risk factor for terbinafine-induced erythema multiforme? Br. J. Dermatol. 142(3), 578 (2000).
  • Lovell MO, Speer KV, Havana RD, Sharkey FE. Histological changes resembling acute rejection in a liver transplant patient treated with terbinafine. Hum. Pathol. 34(2), 187–189 (2003).
  • Hair M, Bryson HM, GAO KL. Itraconazole. A reappraisal of its pharmacological properties and theraputic use in the management of superficial fungal infections. Drugs 51, 585–620 (1996).
  • Drug Information for the Health Care Professional, USP DI, The United States Pharmacopeial Convention, Inc., 17 Edition. Rand McNally, MA, USA, 296–308 (1997).
  • Lomaestro BM, Piatek MA. Update on drug interactions with azole antifungal agents. Ann. Pharmacother. 32, 915–928 (1998).
  • Neuvonen PJ, Jalava K-M. Itraconazole drastically increases plasma concentrations of lovastatin and lovastatin acid. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 60, 54–61 (1996).
  • Lees RS, Lees AM. Rhabdomyolysis from the coadministration of lovastatin and the antifungal agent itraconazole. N. Engl. J. Med. 333, 664–665 (1995).
  • Horn M. Coadministration of itraconazole with hypolipidemic agents may induce rhabdomyolysis in healthy individuals. Arch. Dermatol. 132, 1254 (1996).
  • Segaert MF, de Soete C, Vandewiele I, Verbanck. Drug-interaction-induced rhabdomyolysis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 11, 1846–1847 (1996).
  • von Moltke LL, Greenblatt DJ, Grassi JM et al. Protease inhibitors as inhibitors of human cytochrome P450: high risk associated with ritonavir. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 38, 106–111 (1998).
  • De Wit S, Debier M, De Smet M et al. Effect of fluconazole on indinavir pharmacokinetics in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42, 223–227 (1998).
  • Cato A III, Cao G, Hsu A et al. Evaluation of the effect of fluconazole on the pharmacokinetics of ritonavir. Drug Metab. Dispos. 25, 1104–1106 (1996).
  • Borin MT, Cox SR, Herman BD et al. Effect of fluconazole on the steady-state pharmacokinetics of delaverdine in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41, 1892–1897 (1997).
  • Neuvonen PJ, Suhonen R. Itaconazole interacts with felodipine. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 33, 134–135 (1995).
  • Jalava KM, Olkkola KT, Neuvonen PJ. Itraconazole greatly increases plasma concentrations and effects of felodipine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 61, 410–415 (1997).
  • Tailor SA, Gupta AK, Walter SE, Shear NH. Peripheral edema due to nifedipine–itraconazole interaction: a case report. Arch. Dermatol. 132, 350–352 (1996).
  • Fluconazole, package insert. Pfizer, Roerig, NY, USA, February (1997).
  • Verspeelt J, De Doncker P, Groen K et al. Tolerability and safety of itraconazole in diabetics. Australas. J. Dermatol. 39(Suppl.), 290 (1997).
  • Troglitazone (Rezulin®) product information. Parke-Davis, NJ, USA, January (1997).
  • Acarbose (Precose®) product information. Bayer Corp, CT, USA, March (1998).
  • Metformin (Glucophage®) product information. Bristol-Meyers Squibb Company, NJ, USA, June (1996).
  • Repaglinide (Prandin®) product information. NovoNordisk Pharmaceuticals, NJ, USA, December (1997).
  • Gumbleton M et al. Tolbutamide pharmacokinetics, in the presence of otraconazol, in the rat. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 39(Suppl.), 150 (1987).
  • Glimepiride (Amaryl®) prescribing information. Hoechst-Roussel Pharmaceuticals, MO, USA, November (1996).
  • Canafax DM, Graves NM, Hilligoss DM et al. Increased cyclosporin levels as a result of simultaneous fluconazole and cyclosporin therapy in renal transplant recipients: a double-blind, randomized pharmacokinetic and safety study. Transplant. Proc. 23, 1041 (1991).
  • Kramer MR, Marshall SE, Denning DW et al. Cyclosporin and itraconazole interaction in heart and lung transplant recipients. Ann. Intern. Med. 113, 327–329 (1990).
  • Back DJ, Tija JF. Comparative effects of the antimycotic drugs ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole, and terbinafine on the metabolism of cyclosporin by human liver microsomes. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 32, 624–626 (1991).
  • Shaw MA, Gumbleton M, Nicholls PJ. Interaction of cyclosporin and itraconazole. Lancet 2, 637 (1987).
  • Wassmann, Nickineg G, Bohm M. Long QT syndrome and torsade de pointes in a patient receiving fluconazole. Ann. Intern. Med. 131(10), 797 (1999).
  • De Ponti F, Poluzzi E, Montanaro N. QT-interval prolongation by non-cardiac drugs: lessons to be learned from recent experience. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 56, 1–18 (2000).
  • Tatro DS. Drug Interaction Facts. Facts and Comparisons. St Louis MO, USA, 536 (1999).
  • Lefebvre RA, Van Peer A, Woestenborghs R. Influence of itraconazole on the pharmacokinetics and electrocardiographic effects of astemizole. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 43, 319–322 (1997).
  • Crane JK, Shih HT. Syncope and cardiac arrhythmia due to an interaction between itraconazole and terbinafine. Am. J. Med. 95, 445–446 (1993).
  • Honig PK, Wortham DC, Hull R et al. Itraconazole affects single-dose terfinadine pharmacokinetics and cardiac repolarization pharmacodynamics. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 33, 1201–1206 (1993).
  • Cantilena LR, Sorrels S, Wiley T, Wortham D. Fluconazole alters terfinadine pharmacokinetics and electrocardiographic pharmacodynamics. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 57, 185 (1995).
  • Gupta AK, Tomas E. New antifungal agents. Dermatol. Clin. 21(3), 565–576 (2003).
  • Van Cauteren H, Lampo A, Vandenberghe J et al. Safety aspects of oral antifungal agents. Br. J. Clin. Pract. Suppl. 71, 47–49 (1990).
  • Borgers M, Van den Bossche H, De Brabander M. The mechanism of action of the new antimycotic ketoconazole. Am. J. Med. 74(1B), 2–8 (1983).
  • Brown C, Caro I, Condry P. Multicenter clinical evaluation of ketoconazole in the treatment of cutaneous fungal infections. Cutis 33(6), 578–581 (1984).
  • Sohn CA. Evaluation of ketoconazole. Clin. Pharm. 1(3), 217–224 (1982).
  • Garcia Rodriguez LA, Duque A, Castellsague J et al. A cohort study on the risk of acute liver injury among users of ketoconazole. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 48(6), 847–852 (1999).
  • Chien RN, Yang LJ, Lin PY, Liaw YF. Hepatic injury during ketoconazole therapy in patients with onychomycosis: a controlled cohort study. Hepatology 25(1), 103–107 (1997).
  • Van Cauteren H, Lampo A, Vandenberghe J et al. Toxicological profile and safety evaluation of antifungal azole derivatives. Mycoses 32(Suppl. 1), 60–66 (1989).
  • Garcia Rodriguez LA, Dugue A, Castellsague J et al. A cohort study on the risk of acute liver injury amoung users of ketoconazole and other antifungal drugs. Br. J. Clin. Pharm. 48, 847–852 (1999).
  • Chien R, Yang L, Lin P, Liaw Y. Hepatic injury during ketoconazole therapy in patients with onychomycosis: a controlled cohort study. Hepatology 25(1), 103–107 (1997).
  • Fernandez-Nava HD, Laya-Cuadra B, Tianco EA. Comparison of single dose 400 mg versus 10-day 200 mg daily dose ketoconazole in the treatment of tinea versicolor. Int. J. Dermatol. 37(1), 77 (1998).
  • Bhogal CS, Singal A, Baruah MC. Comparative efficacy of ketoconazole and fluconazole in the treatment of pityriasis versicolor: a one year follow-up study. J. Dermatol. 28(10), 535–539 (2001).
  • Farschian M, Yaghoobi R, Samadi K. Fluconazole versus ketoconazole in the treatment of tinea versicolor. J. Dermatol. Treat. 13(2), 73–76 (2002).
  • Gupta AK, Del Rosso JQ. An evaluation of intermittent therapies used to treat onychomycosis and other dermatomycoses with the oral antifungal agents. Int. J. Dermatol. 39, 401–411 (2000).
  • Zais N. Pityriasis versicolor with ketoconazole. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 20, 703–704 (1989).
  • Faergemann J, Djaru L. Tinea versicolor treatment and prophylaxis with ketoconazole. Cutis 30, 542–545 (1982).
  • Raush LJ, Jacobs PH. Tinea versicolor: treatment and prophylaxis with monthly administration of ketoconazole. Cutis 34, 470–471 (1984).
  • Gupta AK, Taborda PR, Sanzovo AD. Alternate week and combination itraconazole and terbinafine therapy for chromoblastomycosis caused by Fonsecaea pedrosoi in Brazil. Med. Mycol. 40(5), 529–534 (2002).
  • Terrell CL. Antifungal agents. Part II. The azoles. Mayo Clin. Proc. 74(1), 78–100 (1989).
  • Grant SM, Clissold SP. Itraconazole. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 37(3), 310–344 (1989).
  • Haria M, Bryson HM, Goa KL. Itraconazole. A reappraisal of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in the management of superficial fungal infections. Drugs 51(4), 585–620 (1996).
  • DeDoncker, Scher RK, Baran RL et al. Itraconazole therapy is effective for pedal onychomycosis caused by some nondermatophyte molds and in mixed infection with dermatophytes and molds: a multicenter study with 36 patients. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 36, 173–177 (1997).
  • Kumarasinghe SP, Kumarasinghe MP. Itraconazole pulse therapy in chromoblastomycosis. Eur J. Dermatol. 10(3), 220–222 (2000).
  • Vanden Bossche H, Dromer F, Improvisi I et al. Antifungal drug resistance in pathogenic fungi. Med. Mycol. 36(Suppl. 1), 119–128 (1998).
  • Mattieu L, DeDoncker P, Cauwenbergh G et al. Itraconazole penetrates the nail via the nail matrix and nail bed – an investigation in onychomycosis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 16, 374–376 (1991).
  • Heykants J, Van Peer A, Van de Velde V et al. The clinical pharmacokinetics of itraconazole: an overview. Mycoses 32(Suppl. 1), 67–87 (1989).
  • Ginter G, De Doncker P. An intermittent itraconazole 1-week dosing regimen for the treatment of toenail onychomycosis in dermatological practice. Mycoses 41(5–6), 235–238 (1998).
  • Doncker PD, Gupta AK, Marynissen G, Stoffels P, Heremans A. Itraconazole pulse therapy for onychomycosis and dermatomycoses: an overview. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 37(6), 969–974 (1997).
  • Pariser DM, Pariser RJ, Ruoff G, Ray TL. Double-blind comparison of itraconazole and placebo in the treatment of tinea corporis and tinea cruris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 31, 232–234 (1994).
  • Parent P, Decroix J, Heenon M. Clinical experience with short schedules of itraconazole in the treatment of tinea corporis and tinea cruris. Dermatology 189, 378–381 (1994).
  • Tausch I, Decroix J, Gwiezdzinski Z et al. Short-term itraconazole versus terbinafine in the treatment of tinea pedis or manus. Int. J. Dermatol. 37(2), 140–142 (1998).
  • Ginter G. Microsporum canis infections in children: results of a new oral antifungal therapy. Mycoses 39, 265–269 (1996).
  • Schauder S. Itraconazole in the treatment of tinea capitis in children. Case reports with long-term follow-up evaluation. Review of the literature. Mycoses 45, 1–9 (2001).
  • Hickman JG. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled evaluation of short-term treatment with oral itraconazole in patients with tinea versicolor. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 34, 785–787 (1996).
  • Bradbury BD, Jick SS. Itraconazole and fluconazole and certain rare, serious adverse events. Pharmacotherapy 22(6), 697–700 (2002).
  • Castellsague J, Garcia-Rodriguez LA, Duque A, Perez S. Risk of serious skin disorders among users of oral antifungals: a population-based study. BMC Dermatol. 2(1), 14 (2002).
  • Van Cauteren H, Lampo A, Vandenberghe J et al. Safety aspects of oral antifungal agents. Br. J. Clin. Pract. Suppl. 71, 47–49 (1990).
  • Advisory for fungal drugs. FDA Consum. 35, 4 (2001).
  • Ruiz-Contreras J, Rodriguez R, Gomez de Quero P et al. Severe hypokalemia and rhabdomyolysis associated with itraconazole therapy. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22(11), 1024–1025 (2003).
  • Martinez-Alonso JC, Dominguez-Ortega FJ, Fuentes-Gonzalo MJ. Urticaria and angioedema due to itraconazole. Allergy 58(12), 1317–1318 (2003).
  • Nagaoka Y, Okochi H, Tamaki K. Leukocytopenia after administration of itraconazole. Mycoses 46(5–6), 240–241 (2003).
  • Alvarez-Fernandez JG, Castano-Suarez E, Cornejo-Navarro P et al. Photosensitivity induced by oral itraconazole. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 14(6), 501–503 (2000).
  • Ahmad SR, Singer SJ, Leissa BG. Congestive heart failure associated with itraconazole. Lancet 357(9270), 1766–1767 (2001).
  • Horst HA, Parwaresch R, Loffler H. Thrombocytopenia and leukopenia associated with itraconazole. Ann. Intern. Med. 125(2), 156–157 (1996).
  • De Doncker P, Gupta AK, Cel Rosso JQ et al. Safety of itraconazole pulse therapy for onychomycosis. An update. Postgrad. Med. 17–25 (1999).
  • Wolf R, Wolf D, Kuperman S. Focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver after itraconazole treatment. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 33(5), 418–420 (2001).
  • Goto Y, Kono T, Teramae K, Ishii M. Itraconazole-induced drug eruption confirmed by challenge test. Acta Derm. Venereol. 80(1), 72 (2000).
  • Talwalkar JA, Soetikno RE, Carr-Locke DL, Berg CL. Severe cholestasis related to itraconazole for the treatment of onychomycosis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94(12), 3632–3623 (1999).
  • Nguyen AJ, Nelson DB, Thurn JR. Pseudomembranous colitis after itraconazole therapy. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94(7), 1971–1973 (1999).
  • Nelson MR, Smith D, Erskine D, Gazzard BG. Ventricular fibrillation secondary to itraconazole induced hypokalemia. J. Infect. 26(3), 348 (1993).
  • Linthoudt H, van Raemdonck D, Lerut T et al. The association of itraconazole and methylprednisilone may give rise to important steroid-related side effects. J. Heart Lung Transplant. 15, 1165 (1996).
  • Kaukonen KM, Olkkola KT, Neuvonen PJ. Itraconazole increases plasma concentrations of quinidine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 62, 510–517 (1997).
  • Gillies J, Hung KA, Fitzsimons E, Soutar R. Severe vincristine toxicity in combination with itraconazole. Clin. Lab. Haematol. 20(2), 123–124 (1998).
  • Ariffin H, Omar KZ, Ang EL, Shekhar K. Severe vincristine neurotoxicity with concomitant use of itraconazole. J. Paediatr. Child Health 39(8), 638–639 (2003).
  • Meunier F. Fluconazole treatment of fungal infections in the immunocompromised host. Semin. Oncol. 17(3 Suppl. 6), 19–23 (1990).
  • Kauffman CA, Carver PL. Antifungal agents in the 1990s. Current status and future developments. Drugs 53(4), 539–549 (1997).
  • Pasko MT, Piscitelli SC, Van Slooten AD. Fluconazole: a new triazole antifungal agent. DICP 24(9), 860–867 (1990).
  • Kowalsky SF, Dixon DM. Fluconazole: a new antifungal agent. Clin. Pharm. 10(3), 179–194 (1991).
  • Faergemann J. Pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in skin and nails. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 40, S14–S20 (1999).
  • Scher RK, Brennerman D, Rich P et al. A placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind trial of once weekly fluconazole (150mg, 300mg, 400mg) in the treatment of distal subungal onychomycosis of the toenail. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38, S77–S86 (1998).
  • Drake L, Babel D, Stewart DM et al. Once-weekly fluconazole (150, 300 or 400mg) in the treatment of distal subungal onychomycosis of the fingernail. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38, S87–S94 (1998).
  • Havu V, Heikkila H, Kuokkanen K et al. A double-blind, randomized study to compare the efficacy and safety of terbinafine (Lamisil) with fluconazole (Diflucan) in the treatment of onychomycosis. Br. J. Dermatol. 142(1), 97–102 (2000).
  • Suchil P, Gei FM, Robles M et al. Once-weekly oral doses of fluconazole 150 mg in the treatment of tinea corporis/cruris and cutaneous candidiasis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 17, 397–401 (1992).
  • Montero-Gei F, Perera A. Therapy – fluconazole for tinea corporis, tinea cruris, and tinea pedis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 14(Suppl.), S77–S81 (1992).
  • Faergemann J. Treatment of pityriasis versicolor with single dose of fluconazole. Acta Derm. Venereol. 72, 74–75 (1992).
  • Amer MA. Fluconazole in the treatment of tinea versicolor. Int. J. Dermatol. 36, 940–942 (1997).
  • Albert SG, Deleon MJ, Silverberg AB. Possible association between high-dose fluconazole and adrenal insufficiency. Crit. Care Med. 29(3) 668–670 (2001).
  • Goel A, Jain C. Fluconazole induced fixed drug eruption: a rare offender. J. Dermatol. 31(4), 345–346 (2004).
  • Albert SG, DeLeon MJ, Silverberg AB. Possible association between high-dose fluconazole and adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients. Crit. Care Med. 29(3), 668–670 (2001).
  • Shibata S, Kami M, Kanda Y et al. Acute adrenal failure associated with fluconazole after administration of high-dose cyclophosphamide. Am. J. Hematol. 66(4), 303–305 (2001).
  • Wong-Beringer A, Shriner K. Fluconazole-induced agranulocytosis with eosinophilia. Pharmacotherapy 20(4), 484–486 (2000).
  • Tiao GM, Martin J, Weber FL, Cohen RM, Hanto DW. Addisonian crisis in a liver transplant patient due to fluconazole withdrawal. Clin. Transplant. 13(1 Pt 1), 62–64 (1999).
  • Kalivas J. Thrombocytopenia caused by fluconazole. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 35(2 Pt 1), 284 (1996).
  • Goldsmith LA. Alopecia associated with fluconazole therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 125(2), 153 (1996).
  • Kidd D, Ranaghan EA, Morris TC. Hypokalaemia in patients with acute myeloid leukaemia after treatment with fluconazole. Lancet 1(8645), 1017 (1989).
  • Gothard P, Rogers TR. Voriconazole for serious fungal infections. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 58(1), 74–80 (2004).
  • Pearson MM, Rogers PD, Cleary JD, Chapman SW. Voriconazole: a new triazole antifungal agent. Ann. Pharmacother. 37(3), 420–432 (2003).
  • Hoffman HL, Rathbun RC. Review of the safety and efficacy of voriconazole. Exp. Opin. Investig. Drugs 11(3), 409–429 (2002).
  • Denning DW, Griffiths CE. Muco-cutaneous retinoid-effects and facial erythema related to the novel triazole antifungal agent voriconazole. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 26(8), 648–653 (2001).
  • Jeu LA, Piacenti FJ, Lyakhovetskiy AG, Fung HB. Voriconazole. Clin. Ther. 25(5), 1321–1381 (2003).
  • Gupta AK, Sauder DN, Shear NH. Antifungal agents: an overview. Part 1. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 30, 677–698 (1994).
  • Iozumi K, Hattori N, Adachi M, Kaneko T, Shimozuma M, Tamaki K. Long-term follow-up study of onychomycosis: cure rate and dropout rate with oral antifungal treatments. J. Dermatol. 28(3), 128–136 (2001).
  • Smith EB. History of antifungals. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 23, 776–778 (1990).
  • DeBehedette V (based on presentation by Elewski BE, Mercurio MG). Recalcitrant tinea capitis may be due to underdosing. Cos. Derm. 9(2), 57–58 (1996).
  • Kubicova L, Pravda M, Buchta V, Voprsalova M, Sedlak M. Amphotericin B, its lipid formulations and conjugates with polymers. Cent. Eur. J. Public Health 12(Suppl.), S54–S56 (2004).
  • Martino R. Efficacy, safety and cost–effectiveness of Amphotericin B Lipid Complex (ABLC): a review of the literature. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 20(4), 485–504 (2004).
  • Klastersky J. Empirical antifungal therapy. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 23(2), 105–112 (2004).
  • Vermes A, Guchelaar H-J, Dankert J. Flucytosine: a review of its pharmacology, clinical indications, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and drug interactions. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 46, 171–179 (2000).
  • Cornely OA, Schmitz K, Aisenbrey S. The first echinocandin: caspofungin. Mycoses 45(Suppl. 3), 56–60 (2002).
  • Espinel-Ingroff A. History of medical mycology in the U.S. Clin. Microbial. Rev. 9, 235–272 (1996).
  • Hazen El, Brown R. Two antifungal agents produced by a soil actinomycete. Science 112, 423 (1950).
  • Medoff G, Kobayashi GA. The polyenes. In: Antifungal Chemotherapy. Speller DCE (Ed.), John Wiley, Chichester, UK, 3–33 (1980).
  • Dixon PN, Warin RP, English MP. Alimentary candida albicans and napkin rashes. Br. J. Dermatol. 86, 458–462 (1972).
  • Brennan B, Leyden JJ. Overview of topical therapy for common superficial fungal infections and the role of the new topical agents. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 36, S3–S8 (1997).
  • Saag MS, Dismuke WE. Azole antifungal agents: emphasis on new triazoles. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32, 1–8 (1988).
  • Ritter W. Pharmacokinetics of azole compounds. In: Sterol Biosynthesis Inhibitors. Berg D, Plempel D (Eds), Ellis Horwod Ltd., Chichester, UK, 398–429 (1988).
  • Gupta AK, Einarson TR, Summerbell RC et al. An overview of topical antifungal therapy in dermatomycoses a North American perspective. Drugs 55, 645–674 (1988).
  • Van Cutsem JM, Thienpont D. Miconazole, a broad-spectrum antimycotic agent with antibacterial activity. Chemotherapy 17, 392–404 (1972).
  • Gip L. The topical treatment of pityriasis versicolor with clotrimazole. Postgrad. Med. J. 50, 59–60 (1974).
  • Savin RC, Horwitz SN. Double-blind comparison of 2% ketoconazole cream and placebo in the treatment of tinea versicolor. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 500–503 (1986).
  • Patel BK, Vora SN, Dave SN. Comparative study of oral versus topical ketoconazole therapy in pityriasis versicolor. Indian J. Dermatol. Venerol. Leprol. 59, 279–280 (1993).
  • Heel RC, Brogden RN, Speight TM et al. Econazole: a review of its antifungal activity and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 16, 177–201 (1978).
  • Benfield P, Clissold SP. Sulconazole: a review of its antimicrobial activity and therapeutic uses in superficial dermatophytoses. Drugs 35, 143–153 (1988).
  • Beetens JR, Loots W, Somers Y et al. Ketoconazole inhibits the biosynthesis of leukotrienes in vitro and in vivo. Biochem. Pharmacol. 35, 83–891 (1986).
  • Taieb A, Legrain V, Palmier C et al. Topical ketoconazole for infantile seborrheic dermatitis. Dermatologica 181, 26–32 (1990).
  • Faergemann J. Treatment of seborrheic dermatitis of the scalp with ketoconazole shampoo. A double-blind study. Acta Dermatol. Venerol. 70, 171–172 (1990).
  • Ryder N, Dupont M. Inhibition of squalene epoxidase by allylamine antimycotic compounds: a comparative study of the fungal and mammalian enzymes. Biochem. J. 230, 765–770 (1985).
  • Ryder N. Specific inhibition of fungal sterol biosynthesis by SF 86–237, a new orally active allylamine derivative. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 27, 252–256 (1985).
  • Nussbaumer P, Dorfsatter G, Grassberger M et al. Synthesis and structure – activity relationships of phenyl-substituted benzylamine antifungal agents for systemic treatment. J. Med. Chem. 36, 2115–2120 (1993).
  • Maeda T, Takase M, Ishibashi A et al. Synthesis and antifungal activity of butenafine hydrochloride (KP-363), a new benzylamine antifungal agent. Yakugaku Zassh 111, 126–137 (1991).
  • Petranyi G, Ryder NS, Stutz A. Allylamine derivatives: a new class of synthetic antifungal agents inhibiting squalene epoxidase. Science 224, 1239–1241 (1984).
  • Hill S, Thomas R, Smith SG et al. An investigation of the parmacokinetics of topical terbinafine 1% cream. Br. J. Dermatol. 127, 396–400 (1992).
  • Kagawa S. Clinical efficacy of terbinafine in 629 Japanese patients with dermatomycosis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 14, 124–127 (1989).
  • Petranyi G, Meingassner JG, Mieth H. Antifungal activity of the allylamine derivative terbinafine in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 31, 1365–1368 (1987).
  • Georgopoulos A, Petranyi G, Mieth H et al. In vitro activity of naftifine, a new antifungal agent. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 19, 386–389 (1981).
  • Villars V, Jones TC. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of terbinafine – a new topical and systemic fungicidal drug for treatment of dermatomycoses. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 14, 124–127 (1989).
  • Vanden Bossche H, Willemsens G, Cools W et al. Biochemical effects of miconazole on fungi. II. Inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis in Candida albicans. Chem. Biol. Interact. 21, 59–78 (1978).
  • Evans EG, James IG, Seaman RA et al. Does naftifine have anti-inflammatory properties? A double-blind comparative study with 1% clotrimazole/1% hydrocortisone in clinically diagnosed infections of the skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 129, 437–442 (1983).
  • Nahm WK, Orengo I, Rosen T. The antifungal agent butenafine manifests anti-inflammatory activity in vivo. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 41, 203–206 (1999).
  • HY. Recent Progress in Antifungal Therapy. Marcel Dekker, NY, USA (1992).
  • Riviera L, Bellotti M. Lab evaluation of ciclopirox olamine. In vitro and in vivo studies on its antimicrobial activity. Chemotherapy 2, 97–102 (1983).
  • Aly R, Bagatell R, Dittmas W et al. Ciclopirox olamine lotion 1% bioequivalence to ciclopirox olamine cream 1% and clinical efficacy in tinea pedis. Clin. Ther. 11, 290–303 (1989).
  • Baran R, Tosti A, Piraccini BM. Uncommon clinical patterns of Fusarium nail infection: report of three cases. Br. J. Dermatol. 139, 424–427 (1997).
  • Abrams B, Heinz H, Hoehler T. Ciclopirox olamione: A hydroxypyridone antifungal agent. Clin. Dermatol. 9, 471–477 (1992).
  • Gupta AK, Bluhm R. Ciclopirox (Loprox) gel for superficial fungal infections. Skin. Ther. Lett. 9, 4–5 (2004).
  • Gupta AK, Sauder DN, Shear NH. Antifungal agents: an overview. Part I. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 30, 677–700 (1994).
  • Bohn M, Kraemer KT. Dermatopharmacology of ciclopirox nail lacquer 8% for the topical treatment of onychomycosis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 43, S57–S69 (2000).
  • Gupta AK. Pharmacoeconomics analysis of ciclopirox nail lacquer solution 8%; the new oral antifungal agents used to treat dermatophyte toenail onychomycosis in the US. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 43, S81–S95 (2000).
  • Polak-Wyss A. Mechanism of action of antifungals and combination therapy. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venerol. 4(Suppl.), 511–516 (1995).
  • Ghannoum MA. Future of antimycotic therapy. Dermatol. Ther. 3, 104–111 (1997).
  • Rezabek GH, Friedman AD. Superficial fungal infections of the skin. Diagnosis and current treatment recommendations. Drugs 43, 674–682 (1992).
  • Danby FW, Maddin WS, Margesson LJ et al. A randomized placebo controlled trial of ketoconazole 2% shampoo versus selenium sulfide 2.5% shampoo in the treatment of moderate to severe dandruff. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 29, 1008–1012 (1993).
  • Sanchez JL, Torres VM. Double-blind efficacy study of selenium sulfide in tinea versicolor. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 11, 235–238 (1984).
  • Allen HB, Honig PJ, Leyden JJ et al. Selenium sulfide: adjunctive therapy for tinea capitis. Pediatrics 69, 81–83 (1982).
  • Elewski BE, Haley HR, Robbins CM. The use of 40% urea cream in the treatment of moccasin tinea pedis. Cutis 73, 355–357 (2004).
  • Grant SM, Clissold SP. Itraconazole: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 37, 310–344 (1989).
  • Gebhart R, Espinel-Ingroff A, Shadomyh S. In vitro susceptibility studies with oxiconazole (Ro13–8996). Chemotherapy 30, 244–247 (1984).
  • Have RS, Loebenberg D. Animal models in the search for antifungal agents. Am. Soc. Microbiol. News 54, 235–239 (1988).
  • Arika T, Yokoo M, Hase T et al. Effects of butenafine hydrochloride, a new benzylamine derivative, on experimental dermatophytosis in guinea pigs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 34, 2250–2253 (1990).
  • Pershing LK, Corlett J, Jorgensen C. In vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of topical ketoconazole and miconazole in human stratum corneum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38, 90–95 (1994).
  • Hart R, Bell-Syer SEM, Crawford F, Torgerson DJ, Young P, Russell I. Systematic review of topical treatments for fungal infections of the skin and nails of the feet. Br. Med. J. 319, 79–82 (1999).
  • Millikan LE, Galen WK, Gewirtzman GB et al. Naftifine cream 1% versus econazole cream 1% in the treatment of tinea cruris and tinea corporis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 18, 52–56 (1988).
  • Saple DG, Aman AK, Ravichandran G, Korde KM, Desai A. Efficacy and safety of butenafine in superficial dermatophytoses (tinea pedis, tinea cruris, tinea corporis). J. Indian. Med. Assoc. 99, 274–275 (2001).
  • Arika T, Hase T, Yokoo M. Anti-trichophyton mentagrophytes activity and percutaneous permeation of butenafine in guinea pigs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37, 363–365 (1993).
  • Bergstresser PR, Elewski B, Hanifin J et al. Topical terbinafine and clotrimazole in interdigital tinea pedis: a multicenter comparison of cure and relapse rates with one and four week treatment regimens. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 28, 648–651 (1993).
  • Georgopapadakou NH, Bertasso A. Effects of squalene epoxidase inhibitors on Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36, 1779–1781 (1992).
  • Flagothier C, Pierard-Franchimont C, Pierard GE. New insights into the effect of amorolfine nail lacquer. Mycoses 48(2), 91–4 (2005).
  • Rich P, Scher RK, Breneman D, Savin RC. Pharmacokinetics of three doses once weekly fluconazole (150, 300, 450 mg in distal subungualonychomycosis of the toenail. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38(6 Pt 2), S103–S109 (1998).
  • Rich P, Scher RK, Breneman D, Savin RC. Once-weekly fluconazole (150, 300, or 450 mg) in the treatment of distal subungualonychomycosis of the fingernail. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38, S87–S94 (1998)
  • Scher RK, Breneman D, Rich P, Savin RC. Once-weekly fluconazole (150, 300, or 450 mg) in the treatment of distal subungualonychomycosis of the toenail. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38, S77–S86 (1998).

Website

  • Fasthealth interactive healthcare www.fasthealth.com/dictionary/w/Whitfield_ointment.php (Accessed July 2005)

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.