The gut microbiota and the liver: implications for clinical practice

References

• Shah VJ, Kamath PS. Portal hypertension and gastrointestinal bleeding. In: Sleisenger and Fordtran’s Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease (9th Edition). Saunders Elsevier, PA, USA, 1489–1516 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Fraher MH, O’Toole PW, Quigley EMM. Techniques used to characterise the intestinal microbiota: a guide for the clinician. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 9(6), 312–322 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson JK, Holmes E, Kinross J et al. Host-gut microbiota metabolic interactions. Science 336(6086), 1262–1267 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho I, Blaser MJ. The human microbiome: at the interface of health and disease. Nat. Rev. Genet. 13(4), 260–270 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abu-Shanab A, Quigley EM. The role of the gut microbiota in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 7(12), 691–670 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake Y, Yamammoto K. Role of gut microbiota in liver diseases. Hepatol. Res. 43(2), 139–146 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chassaing B, Etienne-Mesmin L, Gewirtz AT. Microbiota-liver axis in hepatic disease. Hepatology doi:10.1002/hep.26494 (2013) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 13(10), 701–712 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moschen AR, Wieser V, Tilg H. Dietary factors: major regulators of the gut’s microbiota. Gut. Liver 6(4), 411–416 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke SF, Murphy EF, Nilaweera K et al. The gut microbiota and its relationship to diet and obesity: new insights. Gut Microbes 3(3), 186–202 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildebrandt MA, Hoffman C, Sherrill-Mix SA et al. High fat diet determines the composition of the murine gut microbiome independently of obesity. Gastroenterology 137(5), 1716–1724 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jernberg C, Lofmark S, Edlund C et al. Long-term ecological impacts of antibiotic administration on the human intestinal microbiota. ISME J. 1(1), 56–66 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouhy F, Guinane CM, Hussey S et al. High-throughput sequencing reveals the incomplete, short-term recovery of infant gut microbiota following parenteral antibiotic treatment with ampicillin and gentamicin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 56(11), 5811–5820 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Sullivan O, Coakley M, Lakshminarayanan B et al. Alterations in intestinal microbiota of elderly Irish subjects post-antibiotic therapy. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 68(1), 214–221 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claesson MJ, Jeffery IB, Conde S et al. Gut microbiota composition correlates with diet and health in the elderly. Nature 488(7410), 178–184 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho I, Yamanishi S, Cox L, Methe BA et al. Antibiotics in early life alter the murine colonic microbiome and adiposity. Nature 488(7413), 621–626 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Membrez M, Blancher F, Jaquet M et al. Gut microbiota modulation with norfloxacin and ampicillin enhances glucose tolerance in mice. FASEB J. 22(7), 2416–2426 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutlu EA, Gillevet PM, Rangwala H et al. Colonic microbiome is altered in alcoholism. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 302(9), G986–G978 (2012).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayin SI, Wahlstrom A, Felin J et al. Gut microbiota regulates bile acid metabolism by reducing the levels of tauro-beta-muricholic acid, a naturally occurring FXR antagonist. Cell Metab. 17(2), 225–235 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips GB, Schwartz R, Gabuzda GJ Jr et al. The syndrome of impending hepatic coma in patients with cirrhosis of the liver given certain nitrogenous substances. N. Engl. J. Med. 247(7), 239–246 (1952).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martini GA, Phear EA, Ruebner B et al. The bacterial content of the small intestine in normal and cirrhotic subjects: relation to methionine toxicity. Clin. Sci (Lond). 16(1), 35–51 (1957).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phear EA, Ruebner B, Sherlock S et al. Methionine toxicity in liver disease and its prevention by chlortetracycline. Clin. Sci (lond). 15(1), 93–117 (1956).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szabo G, Bala S, Petrasek J et al. Gut-liver axis and sensing microbes. Dig. Dis. 28(6), 737–744 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley EMM, Marsh MN, Shaffer JL et al. Hepatobiliary complications of total parenteral nutrition. Gastroenterology 104(1), 286–301 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terjung B, Spengler U. Atypical p-ANCA in PSC and AIH: a hint toward a “leaky gut”? Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 36(1), 40–51 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terjung B, Söhne J, Lechtenberg B et al. p-ANCAs in autoimmune liver disorders recognise human beta-tubulin isotype 5 and cross-react with microbial protein FtsZ. Gut 59(6), 808–816 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley EMM. Gastrointestinal dysfunction in liver disease – gut–liver interactions revisited. Dig. Dis. Sci. 41(3), 557–561 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thalheimer U, Triantos CK, Samonakis DN et al. Infection, coagulation and variceal bleeding in cirrhosis. Gut 54(4), 556–563 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seki E, Schnabl B. Role of innate immunity and the microbiota in liver fibrosis: crosstalk between the liver and gut. J. Physiol. 590(***), 447–458 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crispe IN. The liver as a lymphoid organ. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 27, 147–163 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seo YS, Shah VH. The role of gut liver axis in the pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension Clin. Mol. Hepatol. 18(4), 337–346 (2012).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Catala M, Anton A, Portoles MT. Characterization of the simultaneous binding of history Escherichia coli endotoxin to Kupffer and endothelial liver cells by flow cytometry. Cytometry 36(2), 123–130 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deng M, Scott MJ, Loughran P et al. Lipopolysaccharide clearance, bacterial clearance, and systemic inflammatory responses are regulated by cell type-specific functions of TLR4 during sepsis. J. Immunol. 190(10), 5152–5160 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoque R, Vodovotz Y, Mehal W. Therapeutic strategies in inflammasome mediated diseases of the liver. J. Hepatol. 58(5), 1047–1052 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoefert B. Über die Bakterienbefunde im Duodenalsaft von Gesunden und Kranken. Zschr. Klin. Med. 92, 221–235 (1921).
   Google Scholar
• Quigley EMM. The liver and gastrointestinal disease. In: Schiff ’s Diseases of the Liver (9th Edition). Schiff ER, Sorrell MF, Maddrey WC ( Eds). Lippincott Raven, Philadelphia, PA (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Abu Shanab A, Scully P, Crosbie O et al. Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth in Non-Alcoholic S teato-Hepatitis; association with Toll-Like Receptor 4 expression and plasma levels of Interleukin 8. Dig. Dis. Sci. 56(5), 1524–1534 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bode C, Kolepke R, Schafer K et al. Breath hydrogen excretion in patients with alcoholic liver disease–evidence of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Z. Gastroenterol. 31(1), 3–7 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teltschik Z, Wiest R, Beisner J et al. Intestinal bacterial translocation in rats with cirrhosis is related to compromised Paneth cell antimicrobial host defense. Hepatology 55(4), 1154–1163 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purohit V, Bode JC, Bode C et al. Alcohol, intestinal bacterial growth, intestinal permeability to endotoxin, and medical consequences: summary of a symposium. Alcohol 42(5), 349–361 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wigg AJ, Roberts-Thomson IC, Dymock RB et al. The role of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, intestinal permeability, endotoxemia, and tumor necrosis factor alpha in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Gut 48(2), 206–211 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bajaj JS, Hylemon PB, Ridlon JM et al. Colonic mucosal microbiome differs from stool microbiome in cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy and is linked to cognition and inflammation. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 303(6), G675–G685 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Yang F, Lu H et al. Characterization of fecal microbial communities in patients with liver cirrhosis. Hepatology 54(2), 562–572 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bajaj JS, Ridlon JM, Hylemon PB et al. Linkage of gut microbiome with cognition in hepatic encephalopathy. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 302(1), G168–G175 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu H, Wu Z, Xu W et al. Intestinal microbiota was assessed in cirrhotic patients with hepatitis B virus infection. Intestinal microbiota of HBV cirrhotic patients. Microb. Ecol. 61(3), 693–703 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu J, Wu D, Ahmed A et al. Comparison of the gut microbe profiles and numbers between patients with liver cirrhosis and healthy individuals. Curr. Microbiol. 65(1), 7–13 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu M, Wang B, Fu Y et al. Changes of fecal Bifidobacterial species in adult patients with hepatitis B-Virus-induced chronic liver diseases. Microb. Ecol. 63(2), 304–313 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machado MV, Cortez-Pinto H. Gut microbiota and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Ann. Hepatol. 11(4), 440–449 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA et al. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444(7122), 1027–1031 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Gordon JI. The core gut microbiome, energy balance and obesity. J. Physiol. 587(Pt. 17), 4153–4158 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Hamady M, Yatsunenko T et al. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature 457(7228), 480–484 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ley RE, Backhed F, Turnbaugh P et al. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102(31), 11070–11075 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy EF, Cotter PD, Healy S et al. Composition and energy harvesting capacity of the gut microbiota: relationship to diet, obesity and time in mouse models. Gut 59(12), 1635–1642 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parks BW, Nam E, Org E, Kostem E et al. Genetic control of obesity and gut microbiota composition in response to high-fat, high-sucrose diet in mice. Cell Metab. 17(1), 141–152 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everard A, Belzer C, Geurts L et al. Cross-talk between Akkermanansia muciniphila and intestinal epithelium controls diet-induced obesity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110(22), 9066–9071 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenblum S, Turnbaugh PJ, Borenstein E. Metagenomic systems biology of the human gut microbiome reveals topological shifts associated with obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109(2), 594–599 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Vos WM, Nieuwdorp M. A gut prediction. Nature 498, 48–49 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson FH, Tremaroli V, Nookaew I et al. Gut metagenome in European women with normal, impaired and diabetic glucose control. Nature 498(7452), 99–103 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zupancic ML, Cantarel BL, Liu Z et al. Analysis of the gut microbiota in the old order Amish and its relation to the metabolic syndrome. PLoS ONE 7(8), e43052 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penas-Steinhardt A, Barcos LS, Belforte FS et al. Functional characterization of TLR4 +3725G/C polymorphism and association with protection against overweight. PLoS ONE 7(12), e50992 (2012).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim KA, Gu W, Lee IA et al. High fat diet-induced gut microbiota exacerbates inflammation and obesity in mice via the TLR4 signalling pathway. PLoS ONE 7(10), e47713 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijay-Kumar M, Aitken JD, Carvalho FA et al. Metabolic syndrome and altered gut microbiota in mice lacking toll-like receptor 5. Science 328(5975), 228–231 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li JV, Ashrafian H, Bueter M et al. Metabolic surgery profoundly influences gut microbial-host metabolic cross-talk. Gut 60(9), 1214–1223 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liou AP, Paziul M, Luevano JM Jr et al. Conserved shifts in the gut microbiota due to gastric bypass reduce host weight and adiposity. Sci. Transl. Med. 5(178), 178ra41 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong VW, Tse CH, Lam TT et al. Molecular characterization of the fecal micrbiota in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis – a longitudinal study. PLoS ONE 8(4), e62885 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raman M, Ahmed I, Gillevet PM et al. Fecal microbiome and volatile organic compound metabolome in obese humans with nonalcoholic Fatty liver disease. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 11(7), 868–875.e1–3 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu L, Baker SS, Gill C et al. Characterization of gut microbiomes in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) patients: a connection between endogenous alcohol and NASH. Hepatology 57(2), 601–609 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Roy T, Llopis M, Lepage P et al. Intestinal microbiota determines development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in mice. Gut doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2012-303816 (2012) ( epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Spencer MD, Hamp TJ, Reid RW et al. Association between composition of the human gastrointestinal microbiome and development of fatty liver with choline deficiency. Gastroenterology 140(3), 976–986 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mouzaki M, Comelli EM, Arendt BM et al. Intestinal microbiota in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 58(1), 120–127 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henao-Mejia J, Elinav E, Jin C et al. Inflammasome-mediated dysbiosis regulates progression of NAFLD and obesity. Nature 482(7384), 179–185 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cesaro C, Tiso A, Del Prete A et al. Gut microbiota and probiotics in chronic liver diseases. Dig. Liver Dis. 43(6), 431–438 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pastor Rojo O, Lopez San Roman A, Albeniz A et al. Serum lipopolysaccharide–binding protein in endotoxemic patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 13(3), 269–277 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang AP, Migita K, Ito M et al. Hepatic expression of toll–like receptor 4 in primary biliary cirrhosis. J. Autoimmun. 25(1), 85–91 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopf U, Möller B, Stemerowicz R et al. Relation between Escherichia coli R (rough)-forms in gut, lipid A in liver, and primary biliary cirrhosis. Lancet 2(8677), 1419–1422 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Grasso A et al. Microbial mimics are major targets of crossreactivity with human pyruvate dehydrogenase in primary biliary cirrhosis. J. Hepatol. 40(1), 31–39 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Okamoto M et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis is characterized by IgG3 antibodies cross-reactive with the major mitochondrial autoepitope and its Lactobacillus mimic. Hepatology. 42(2), 458–465 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox JG, Feng Y, Theve EJ et al. Gut microbes define liver cancer risk in mice exposed to chemical and viral transgenic heptocarcinogenesis. Gut 59(1), 88–97 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshimoto S, Loo TM, Atarashi K et al. Obesity-induced gut microbial metabolite promotes liver cancer through senescence secretome. Nature 499(7456), 97–101 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bindels IB, Porporato P, Dewulf EM et al. Gut microbiota-derives propionate reduces cancer cell proliferation in the liver. Br. J. Cancer 107(8), 1337–1344 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almeida J, Galhenage S, Yu J, Kurtovic J et al. Gut flora and bacterial translocation in chronic liver disease. World J. Gastroenterol. 12(10), 1493–1502 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasaratnam B, Connelly N, Chin-Dusting J. Nitric oxide and the hyperdynamic circulation in cirrhosis: is there a role for selective intestinal decontamination? Clin. Sci (Lond). 107(5), 425–434 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen MJ, Sahar T, Benenson S et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhotic patients with ascites, without gastro-intestinal bleeding. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (2), CD004791 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Chavez-Tapia NC, Barrientos-Gutierrez T, Tellez-Avila FI et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for cirrhotic patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (9), CD002907 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Bass NM, Mullen KD, Sanyal A et al. Rifaximin treatment in hepatic encephalopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 1071–1081 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sidhu SS, Goyal O, Mishra BP et al. Rifaximin improves psychometric performance and health-related quality of life in patients with minimal hepatic encephalopathy (the RIME Trial). Am. J. Gastroenterol. 106(2), 307–316 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcovich M, Zocco MA, Roccarina D et al. Prevention and treatment of hepatic encephalopathy: focusing on the gut microbiota. World J. Gastroenterol. 18(46), 6693–6770 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bajaj JS, Heumann DM, Sanyal AJ et al. Modulation of the metabolome by rifaximin in patients with cirrhosis and minimal hepatic encephalopathy. PloS ONE 8(4), e60042 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridlon JM, Alves JM, Hylemon PB et al. Cirrhosis, bile acids, and gut microbiota: unraveling a complex relationship. Gut Microbes 4(5) (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barclay AR, Beattie LM, Weaver LT et al. Systematic review: medical and nutritional interventions for the management of intestinal failure and its resultant complications in children. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 33(2), 175–184 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Z, Yang S, Lin H, Huang J et al. Probiotics and antibodies to TNF inhibit inflammatory activity and improve nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 37(2), 343–350 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma X, Hua J, Li Z. Probiotics improve high fat diet-induced hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance by increasing hepatic NKT cells. J. Hepatol. 49(5), 821–830 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velayudham A, Dolganiuc A, Ellis M et al. VSL#3 probiotic treatment attenuates fibrosis without changes in steatohepatitis in a diet-induced nonalcoholic steatohepatitis model in mice. Hepatology 49(3), 989–997 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu RY, Wan YP, Fang QY et al. Supplementation with probiotics modifies gut flora and attenuates liver fat accumulation in rat nonalcoholic fatty liver disease model. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 50(1), 72–77 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani PD, Possemiers S, Van den Wiele T et al. Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-driven improvement of gut permeability. Gut 58(8), 1091–1103 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsyth CB, Farhadi A, Jakate SM et al. Lactobacillus GG treatment ameliorates alcohol-induced intestinal oxidative stress, gut leakiness, and liver injury in a rat model of alcoholic steatohepatitis. Alcohol 43(2), 163–172 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Liu Y, Sidhu A et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG culture supernatant ameliorates acute alcohol-induced intestinal permeability and liver injury. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 303(1), G32–G41 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Kirpich I, Liu Y et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG treatment potentiates intestinal hypoxia-inducible factor, promotes intestinal integrity and ameliorates alcohol-induced liver injury. Am. J. Pathol. 179(6), 2866–2875 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magna L, Del Piano M, Deidda F et al. Assessment of the in vitro inhibitory activity of specific probiotic bacteria against different Escherichia coli strains. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 46( Suppl. 46), S29–S32 (2012).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osman N, Adawi D, Ahrné S et al. Endotoxin- and D-galactosamine-induced liver injury improved by the administration of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and blueberry. Dig. Liver Dis. 39(9), 849–856 (207).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Forsyth CB, Farhadi A, Jakate SM et al. Lactobacillus GG treatment ameliorates alcohol-induced intestinal oxidative stress, gut leakiness, and liver injury in a rat model of alcoholic steatohepatitis. Alcohol 43(2), 163–172 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirpich IA, Solovieva NV, Leikhter SN et al. Probiotics restore bowel flora and improve liver enzymes in human alcohol-induced liver injury: a pilot study. Alcohol 42(8), 675–682 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lata J, Jurankova J, Kopacova M et al. Probiotics in hepatology. World J. Gastroenterol. 17(24), 2890–2896 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardone G, Compare D, Liguori E et al. Protective effects of Lactobacillus paracasei F19 in a rat model of oxidative and metabolic hepatic injury. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 299(3), G669–G676 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gratz SW, Mykkanen H, El-Nezami HS. Probiotics and gut health: a special focus on liver diseases. World J. Gastroenterol. 16(4), 403–410 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lirussi F, Mastropasqua E, Orando S et al. Probiotics for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and/or steatohepatitis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (1), CD005165 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Jayakumar S, Carbonneau M, Hotte N et al. VSL#3® probiotic therapy does not reduce portal pressures in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Liver Int. doi:10.1111/liv.12280 (2013) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• McGee RG, Bakens A, Wiley K et al. Probiotics for patients with encephalopthay. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (11), CD008716 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Shukla S, Shukla A, Mehboob S et al. Meta-analysis: the effects of gut flora modulation using prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics on minimal hepatic encephalopathy. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 33(6), 662–671 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Q, Duan ZP, Ha DK, Bengmark S et al. Synbiotic modulation of gut flora: effect on minimal hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology 39(5), 1441–1449 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F et al. Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Gastroenterology 143(4), 913–916 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar