Challenges and opportunities in the management of Clostridium difficile infection

References

• Eckburg PB, Bik EM, Bernstein CN, et al. Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora. Science 2005;308(5728):1635-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber DJ, Rutala WA. The role of the environment in transmission of Clostridium difficile infection in healthcare facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011;32(3):207-9
   Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Surawicz CM. Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97(7):1769-75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepin J, Routhier S, Gagnon S, Brazeau I. Management and outcomes of a first recurrence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in Quebec, Canada. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42(6):758-64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garey KW, Graham G, Gerard L, et al. Prevalence of diarrhea at a university hospital and association with modifiable risk factors. Ann Pharmacother 2006;40(6):1030-4
   Google Scholar
• Saade E, Deshpande A, Kundrapu S, et al. Appropriateness of empiric therapy in patients with suspected Clostridium difficile infection. Curr Med Res Opin 2013;29(8):985-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbut F, Surgers L, Eckert C, et al. Does a rapid diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection impact on quality of patient management? Clin Microbiol Infect 2014;20(2):136-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunkesula VC, Kundrapu S, Muganda C, et al. Does empirical Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) therapy result in false-negative CDI diagnostic test results? Clin Infect Dis 2013;57(4):494-500
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubberke ER, Reske KA, Noble-Wang J, et al. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile environmental contamination and strain variability in multiple health care facilities. Am J Infect Control 2007;35(5):315-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31(5):431-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM, Davis MB. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45(3):302-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolton RP, Culshaw MA. Faecal metronidazole concentrations during oral and intravenous therapy for antibiotic associated colitis due to Clostridium difficile. Gut 1986;27(10):1169-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vardakas KZ, Polyzos KA, Patouni K. Treatment failure and recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection following treatment with vancomycin or metronidazole: a systematic review of the evidence. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012;40(1):1-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam SW, Bass SN, Neuner EA, Bauer SR. Effect of vancomycin dose on treatment outcomes in severe Clostridium difficile infection. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2013;42(6):553-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bass SN, Lam SW, Bauer SR, Neuner EA. Comparison of Oral Vancomycin Capsule and Solution for Treatment of Initial Episode of Severe Clostridium difficile Infection. J Pharm Pract 2013. [Epub ahead of print]
   Google Scholar
• Kim PK, Huh HC, Cohen HW, et al. Intracolonic vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile colitis. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2013;14(6):532-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bass SN, Bauer SR, Neuner EA, Lam SW. Comparison of treatment outcomes with vancomycin alone versus combination therapy in severe Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 2013;85(1):22-7
   Google Scholar
• Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 2011;364(5):422-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clutter DS, Dubrovskaya Y, Merl MY, et al. Fidaxomicin versus conventional antimicrobial therapy in 59 recipients of solid organ and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation with clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013;57(9):4501-5
   Google Scholar
• Stranges PM, Hutton DW, Collins CD. Cost-effectiveness analysis evaluating fidaxomicin versus oral vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. Value Health 2013;16(2):297-304
   Google Scholar
• Patrick Basu P, Dinani A, Rayapudi K, et al. Rifaximin therapy for metronidazole-unresponsive Clostridium difficile infection: a prospective pilot trial. Ther Adv Gastroenterol 2010;3(4):221-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson S, Homann SR, Bettin KM, et al. Treatment of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriers (fecal excretors) with vancomycin or metronidazole. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1992;117(4):297-302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald LC, Killgore GE, Thompson A, et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2005;353(23):2433-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goorhuis A, Bakker D, Corver J, et al. Emergence of Clostridium difficile infection due to a new hypervirulent strain, polymerase chain reaction ribotype 078. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47(9):1162-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babakhani F, Bouillaut L, Sears P, et al. Fidaxomicin inhibits toxin production in Clostridium difficile. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013;68(3):515-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorg JA, Sonenshein AL. Inhibiting the initiation of Clostridium difficile spore germination using analogs of chenodeoxycholic acid, a bile acid. J Bacteriol 2010;192(19):4983-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meader E, Mayer MJ, Gasson MJ, et al. Bacteriophage treatment significantly reduces viable Clostridium difficile and prevents toxin production in an in vitro model system. Anaerobe 2010;16(6):549-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogg GA, George RH, Youngs D, et al. Randomized controlled trial of colestipol in antibiotic-associated colitis. Br J Surg 1982;69(3):137-9
   Google Scholar
• Braunlin W, Xu Q, Hook P, et al. Toxin binding of tolevamer, a polyanionic drug that protects against antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Biophys J 2004;87(1):534-9
   Google Scholar
• Kurtz CB, Cannon EP, Brezzani A, et al. GT160-246, a toxin binding polymer for treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45(8):2340-7
   Google Scholar
• Babakhani F, Bouillaut L, Gomez A, et al. Fidaxomicin inhibits spore production in Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55(Suppl 2):S162-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garneau JR, Valiquette L, Fortier LC. Prevention of Clostridium difficile spore formation by sub-inhibitory concentrations of tigecycline and piperacillin/tazobactam. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Feghaly RE, Stauber JL, Deych E, et al. Markers of intestinal inflammation, not bacterial burden, correlate with clinical outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56(12):1713-21
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bauer MP, Hensgens MP, Miller MA, et al. Renal failure and leukocytosis are predictors of a complicated course of Clostridium difficile infection if measured on day of diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55(Suppl 2):S149-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farne HA, Martin NK, Main J, et al. C-reactive protein is a useful predictor of metronidazole treatment failure in mild-to-moderate Clostridium difficile infection. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;25(1):33-6
   Google Scholar
• Jiang ZD, DuPont HL, Garey K, et al. A common polymorphism in the interleukin 8 gene promoter is associated with Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101(5):1112-16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motzkus-Feagans CA, Pakyz A, Polk R, et al. Statin use and the risk of Clostridium difficile in academic medical centres. Gut 2012;61(11):1538-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma TY, Yoshinaka R, Banaag A, et al. Total parenteral nutrition via multilumen catheters does not increase the risk of catheter-related sepsis: a randomized, prospective study. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27(3):500-3
   Google Scholar
• Mahony DE, Woods A, Eelman MD, et al. Interaction of bismuth subsalicylate with fruit juices, ascorbic acid, and thiol-containing substrates to produce soluble bismuth products active against Clostridium difficile. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005;49(1):431-3
   Google Scholar
• Cardoso RA, Filho AA, Melo MC, et al. Effects of anti-inflammatory drugs on fever and neutrophilia induced by Clostridium difficile toxin B. Mediators Inflamm 1996;5(3):183-7
   Google Scholar
• Darkoh C, Brown EL, Kaplan HB, DuPont HL. Bile salt inhibition of host cell damage by Clostridium difficile toxins. PLoS One 2013;8(11):e79631
   Google Scholar
• Klobuka AJ, Markelov A. Current status of surgical treatment for fulminant clostridium difficile colitis. World J Gastrointest Surg 2013;5(6):167-72
   Google Scholar
• Neal MD, Alverdy JC, Hall DE, et al. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease. Ann Surg 2011;254(3):423-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, Kelly CP. Association between antibody response to toxin A and protection against recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Lancet 2001;357(9251):189-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcox MH. Descriptive study of intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004;53(5):882-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salcedo J, Keates S, Pothoulakis C, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for severe Clostridium difficile colitis. Gut 1997;41(3):366-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahani L, Koirala J. Intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. BMJ Case Reports 2012;2012
   Google Scholar
• Aldeyab MA, McElnay JC, Scott MG, et al. An evaluation of the impact of a single-dose intravenous immunoglobulin regimen in the treatment of Clostridium difficile infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011;32(6):631-3
   Google Scholar
• Juang P, Skledar SJ, Zgheib NK, et al. Clinical outcomes of intravenous immune globulin in severe clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Am J Infect Control 2007;35(2):131-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munoz P, Giannella M, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in heart transplant recipients: is hypogammaglobulinemia the answer? J Heart Lung Transplant 2007;26(9):907-14
   Google Scholar
• Lowy I, Molrine DC, Leav BA, et al. Treatment with monoclonal antibodies against Clostridium difficile toxins. N Engl J Med 2010;362(3):197-205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harpe SE, Inocencio TJ, Pakyz AL, et al. Characterization of Continued Antibacterial Therapy After Diagnosis of Hospital-Onset Clostridium difficile Infection: implications for Antimicrobial Stewardship. Pharmacotherapy 2012;32(8):744-54
   Google Scholar
• Mullane KM, Miller MA, Weiss K, et al. Efficacy of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin as therapy for Clostridium difficile infection in individuals taking concomitant antibiotics for other concurrent infections. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53(5):440-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaughnessy MK, Amundson WH, Kuskowski MA, et al. Unnecessary antimicrobial use in patients with current or recent Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2013;34(2):109-16
   Google Scholar
• Louie TJ, Cannon K, Byrne B, et al. Fidaxomicin preserves the intestinal microbiome during and after treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and reduces both toxin reexpression and recurrence of CDI. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55 Suppl 2:S132-42
   Google Scholar
• DuPont HL, Jiang ZD, Okhuysen PC, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of rifaximin to prevent travelers’ diarrhea. Ann Intern Med 2005;142(10):805-12
   Google Scholar
• Song Y, Garg S, Girotra M, et al. Microbiota dynamics in patients treated with fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. PLoS One 2013;8(11):e81330
   Google Scholar
• Pothoulakis C. Review article: anti-inflammatory mechanisms of action of Saccharomyces boulardii. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009;30(8):826-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldenberg JZ, Ma SS, Saxton JD, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;5: CD006095
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnston BC, Ma SS, Goldenberg JZ, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2012;157(12):878-88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Greenberg RN, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of Saccharomyces boulardii in combination with standard antibiotics for Clostridium difficile disease. JAMA 1994;271(24):1913-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surawicz CM, McFarland LV, Greenberg RN, et al. The search for a better treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: use of high-dose vancomycin combined with Saccharomyces boulardii. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31(4):1012-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang JY, Antonopoulos DA, Kalra A, et al. Decreased Diversity of the Fecal Microbiome in Recurrent Clostridium difficile-Associated Diarrhea. J Infect Dis 2008;197(3):435-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weingarden AR, Chen C, Bobr A, et al. Microbiota transplantation restores normal fecal bile acid composition in recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2014;306(4):G310-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt LJ, Aroniadis OC, Mellow M, et al. Long-term follow-up of colonoscopic fecal microbiota transplant for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107(7):1079-87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassam Z, Lee CH, Yuan Y, Hunt RH. Fecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2013;108(4):500-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koo HL, Van JN, Zhao M, et al. Real-time polymerase chain reaction detection of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonization and rising C. difficile-associated disease rates. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;35:667-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande A, Pasupuleti V, Rolston DD, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of real-time polymerase chain reaction in detection of Clostridium difficile in the stool samples of patients with suspected Clostridium difficile Infection: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53(7):e81-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longtin Y, Trottier S, Brochu G, et al. Impact of the type of diagnostic assay on Clostridium difficile infection and complication rates in a mandatory reporting program. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56(1):67-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dionne LL, Raymond F, Corbeil J, et al. Correlation between Clostridium difficile bacterial load, commercial real-time PCR cycle thresholds, and results of diagnostic tests based on enzyme immunoassay and cell culture cytotoxicity assay. J Clin Microbiol 2013;51(11):3624-30
   Google Scholar
• Darkoh C, Kaplan HB, DuPont HL. Harnessing the glucosyltransferase activities of Clostridium difficile for functional studies of toxins A and B. J Clin Microbiol 2011;49(8):2933-41
   Google Scholar
• Brown KA, Khanafer N, Daneman N, Fisman DN. Meta-analysis of antibiotics and the risk of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013;57(5):2326-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DuPont HL. Chemoprophylaxis of Clostridium difficile infections in high risk hospitalized patients. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014; In press
   Google Scholar
• Howerton A, Patra M, Abel-Santos E. A new strategy for the prevention of Clostridium difficile infection. J Infect Dis 2013;207(10):1498-504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerding DN. Clostridium difficile infection prevention: biotherapeutics, immunologics, and vaccines. Discov Med 2012;13(68):75-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darkoh C, Lichtenberger LM, Ajami N, et al. Bile acids improve the antimicrobial effect of rifaximin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010;54(9):3618-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrof EO, Gloor GB, Vanner SJ, et al. Stool substitute transplant therapy for the eradication of Clostridium difficile infection: “RePoPulating” the gut. Microbiome 2013;1:1-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang WJ, Gray S, Sison C, et al. Low vitamin D level is an independent predictor of poor outcomes in Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Therap Adv Gastroenterol 2014;7(1):14-19
   Google Scholar