Placental ischemia and breast cancer risk after preeclampsia: tying the knot

References

• Kelsey JL, Gammon MD, John EM. Reproductive factors and breast cancer. Epidemiol. Rev.15(1), 36–47 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekbom A, Hsieh CC, Lipworth L, Adami HQ, Trichopoulos D. Intrauterine environment and breast cancer risk in women: a population-based study. JNCI J. Natl Cancer Inst.89(1), 71–76 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Troisi R, Weiss HA, Hoover RN et al. Pregnancy characteristics and maternal risk of breast cancer. Epidemiology9(6), 641–647 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Innes KE, Byers TE. Preeclampsia and breast cancer risk. Epidemiology10(6), 722–732 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubel CA, Snaedal S, Ness RB et al. Dyslipoproteinaemia in postmenopausal women with a history of eclampsia. BJOG107(6), 776–784 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Innes KE , Byers TE. Smoking during pregnancy and breast cancer risk in very young women (United States). Cancer Causes Control12(2), 179–185 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chambers JC, Fusi L, Malik IS, Haskard DO, De Swiet M, Kooner JS. Association of maternal endothelial dysfunction with preeclampsia. JAMA285(12), 1607–1612 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson BJ, Watson MS, Prescott GJ et al. Hypertensive diseases of pregnancy and risk of hypertension and stroke in later life: results from cohort study. BMJ326(7394), 845 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Innes KE, Byers TE. First pregnancy characteristics and subsequent breast cancer risk among young women. Int. J. Cancer112(2), 306–311 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cnattingius S, Torrang A, Ekbom A, Granath F, Petersson G, Lambe M. Pregnancy characteristics and maternal risk of breast cancer. JAMA294(19), 2474–2480 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wikstrom AK, Haglund B, Olovsson M, Lindeberg SN. The risk of maternal ischaemic heart disease after gestational hypertensive disease. BJOG112(11), 1486–1491 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harskamp RE, Zeeman GG. Preeclampsia: at risk for remote cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Med. Sci.334(4), 291–295 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Williams DJ. Pre-eclampsia and risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ335(7627), 974 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Nijland MJ, Knoblich P. Placental ischemia and cardiovascular dysfunction in preeclampsia and beyond: making the connections. Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther.6(10), 1367–1377 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Craici I, Wagner S, Garovic VD. Review: preeclampsia and future cardiovascular risk: formal risk factor or failed stress test? Ther. Adv. Cardiovasc. Dis.2(4), 249–259 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vikse BE, Irgens LM, Leivestad T, Skjaerven R, Iversen BM. Preeclampsia and the risk of end-stage renal disease. N. Engl. J. Med.359(8), 800–809 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aagaard-Tillery KM, Stoddard GJ, Holmgren C et al. Preeclampsia and subsequent risk of cancer in Utah. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.195(3), 691–699 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polednak AP, Janerich DT. Characteristics of 1st pregnancy in relation to early breast-cancer – a case–control study. J. Reprod. Med.28(5), 314–318 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Innes K, Byers T, Schymura M. Birth characteristics and subsequent risk for breast cancer in very young women. Am. J. Epidemiol.152(12), 1121–1128 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vatten LJ, Forman MR, Nilsen TIL, Barrett JC, Romundstad PR. The negative association between pre-eclampsia and breast cancer risk may depend on the offspring’s gender. Br. J. Cancer96(9), 1436–1438 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettersson A, Richiardi L, Cnattingius S, Kaijser M, Akre O. Gestational hypertension, preeclampsia, and risk of testicular cancer. Cancer Res.68(21), 8832–8836 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forman MR, Cantwell MM, Ronckers C, Zhang Y. Through the looking glass at early-life exposures and breast cancer risk. Cancer Invest.23(7), 609–624 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambe M, Hsieh C, Trichopoulos D, Ekbom A, Pavia M, Adami HO. Transient increase in the risk of breast cancer after giving birth. N. Engl. J. Med.331(1), 5–9 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pike MC, Krailo MD, Henderson BE, Casagrande JT, Hoel DG. ‘Hormonal’ risk factors, ‘breast tissue age’ and the age-incidence of breast cancer. Nature303(5920), 767–770 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacMahon B, Cole P, Lin TM et al. Age at first birth and breast cancer risk. Bull. World Health Organ.43(2), 209–221 (1970).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogren I, Stenlund H, Hogberg U. Long-term impact of reproductive factors on the risk of cervical, endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer. Acta Oncol.40(7), 849–854 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo J, Mailo D, Hu YF, Balogh G, Sheriff F, Russo IH. Breast differentiation and its implication in cancer prevention. Clin. Cancer Res11(2 Pt 2), 931s–936s (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calderon-Margalit R, Friedlander Y, Yanetz R et al. Preeclampsia and subsequent risk of cancer: update from the Jerusalem Perinatal Study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.200(1), 63.E1–E5 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogren I, Stenlund H, Högberg U. Long-term impact of reproductive factors on the risk of cervical, endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer. Acta Oncologica40(7), 849–854 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paltiel O, Friedlander Y, Tiram E, Barchana M, Xue X, Harlap S. Cancer after pre-eclampsia: follow up of the Jerusalem perinatal study cohort. BMJ328(7445), 919 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Babcock SA, Granger JP. Hypertension produced by reduced uterine perfusion in pregnant rats is associated with increased soluble Fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 expression. Hypertension50, 1142–1147 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Gilbert SAB, Arany M, Granger JP. Hypertension produced by placental ischemia in pregnant rats is associated with increased soluble endoglin expression. Hypertension53(2), 399–403 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makris A, Thornton C, Thompson J et al. Uteroplacental ischemia results in proteinuric hypertension and elevated sFLT-1. Kidney Int.71(10), 977–984 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard SE, Min JY, Merchan J et al. Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia. J. Clin. Invest.111(5), 649–658 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutter WP, Karumanchi SA. Molecular mechanisms of preeclampsia. Microvasc. Res.75(1), 1–8 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkatesha S, Toporsian M, Lam C et al. Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Nat. Med.12(6), 642–649 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard S, Epstein FH, Karumanchi SA. Preeclampsia and angiogenic imbalance. Ann. Rev. Med.59(1), 61–78 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sibai B, Dekker G, Kupferminc M. Pre-eclampsia. Lancet365(9461), 785–799 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts JM, Pearson G, Cutler J, Lindheimer M. Summary of the NHLBI working group on research on hypertension during pregnancy. Hypertension41(3), 437–445 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Ryan MJ, LaMarca BB, Sedeek M, Murphy SR, Granger JP. Pathophysiology of hypertension during preeclampsia: linking placental ischemia with endothelial dysfunction. Am. J.Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.294(2), H541–H550 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Cox LA, Mitchell G, Nijland MJ. Nutrient-restricted fetus and the cardio-renal connection in hypertensive offspring. Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther.4(2), 227–237 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Nijland MJ. Sex differences in the developmental origins of hypertension and cardiorenal disease. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.295(6), R1941–R1952 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamimi R, Lagiou P, Vatten LJ et al. Pregnancy hormones, pre-eclampsia, and implications for breast cancer risk in the offspring. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev.12(7), 647–650 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trichopoulos D, Adami HO, Ekbom A, Hsieh CC, Lagiou P. Early life events and conditions and breast cancer risk: from epidemiology to etiology. Int. J. Cancer122(3), 481–485 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagiou P, Hsieh CC, Trichopoulos D et al. Neonatal growth and breast cancer risk in adulthood. Br. J. Cancer99(9), 1544–1548 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Freeman DJ, McManus F, Brown EA et al. Short- and long-term changes in plasma inflammatory markers associated with preeclampsia. Hypertension44(5), 708–714 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubel CA, Wallukat G, Wolf M et al. Agonistic angiotensin II type 1 receptor autoantibodies in postpartum women with a history of preeclampsia. Hypertension49(3), 612–617 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubel CA, Powers RW, Snaedal S et al. C-reactive protein is elevated 30 years after eclamptic pregnancy. Hypertension51(6), 1499–1505 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson WD, Jacobson HI, Negrini B, Janerich DT. Hypertension, pregnancy, and risk of breast cancer. JNCI J. Natl Cancer Inst.81(20), 1571–1574 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Terry MB, Perrin M, Salafia CM et al. Preeclampsia, pregnancy-related hypertension, and breast cancer risk. Am. J. Epidemiol.165(9), 1007–1014 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Troisi R, Innes KE, Roberts JM, Hoover RN. Preeclampsia and maternal breast cancer risk by offspring gender: do elevated androgen concentrations play a role? Br. J. Cancer97(5), 688–690 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xue F , Michels KB. Intrauterine factors and risk of breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of current evidence. Lancet Oncol.8(12), 1088–1100 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohn BA, Cirillo PM, Christianson RE, van den Berg BJ, Siiteri PK. Placental characteristics and reduced risk of maternal breast cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst.93(15), 1133–1140 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinck L, Silberstein GB. Key stages in mammary gland development: the mammary end bud as a motile organ. Breast Cancer Res.7(6), 245–251 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennighausen L, Robinson GW. Signaling pathways in mammary gland development. Dev. Cell1(4), 467–475 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallepell S, Krust A, Chambon P, Brisken C. Paracrine signaling through the epithelial estrogen receptor a is required for proliferation and morphogenesis in the mammary gland. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA103(7), 2196–2201 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oakes SR, Hilton HN, Ormandy CJ. The alveolar switch: coordinating the proliferative cues and cell fate decisions that drive the formation of lobuloalveoli from ductal epithelium. Breast Cancer Res.8(2), 207 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brisken C, Kaur S, Chavarria TE et al. Prolactin controls mammary gland development via direct and indirect mechanisms. Dev. Biol.210(1), 96–106 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wlodek M, Ceranic V, O’Dowd R, Westcott K, Siebel A. Maternal progesterone treatment rescues the mammary impairment following uteroplacental insufficiency and improves postnatal pup growth in the rat. Reprod. Sci.16(4), 380–390 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lambe M, Hsieh C, Trichopoulos D, Ekbom A, Pavia M, Adami HO. Transient increase in the risk of breast cancer after giving birth. N. Engl. J. Med.331(1), 5–9 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schedin P. Pregnancy-associated breast cancer and metastasis. Nat. Rev. Cancer6(4), 281–291 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine RJ, Maynard SE, Qian C et al. Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia. N. Engl. J. Med.350(7), 672–683 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine RJ, Lam C, Qian C et al. Soluble endoglin and other circulating antiangiogenic factors in preeclampsia. N. Engl. J. Med.355(10), 992–1005 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher SJ, Roberts JM. Defects in placentation and placental perfusion. In: Chelsey’s Hypertensive Disorders in Pregnancy. Lindheimer MD, Roberts JM, Cunningham FG (Eds). Appleton & Lange, CT, USA 377–394 (1999)
   Google Scholar
• Conrad KP, Benyo DF. Placental cytokines and the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol.37(3), 240–249 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf M, Hubel CA, Lam C et al. Preeclampsia and future cardiovascular disease: potential role of altered angiogenesis and insulin resistance. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89(12), 6239–6243 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf M, Shah A, Lam C et al. Circulating levels of the antiangiogenic marker sFLT-1 are increased in first versus second pregnancies. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.193(1), 16–22 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thadhani R, Mutter WP, Wolf M et al. First trimester placental growth factor and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 and risk for preeclampsia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89(2), 770–775 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibata E, Rajakumar A, Powers RW et al. Soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 is increased in preeclampsia but not in normotensive pregnancies with small-for-gestational-age neonates: relationship to circulating placental growth factor. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90(8), 4895–4903 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajakumar A, Michael HM, Rajakumar PA et al. Extra-placental expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, (Flt-1) and soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1), by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in normotensive and preeclamptic pregnant women. Placenta26(7), 563–573 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam C, Lim KH, Karumanchi SA. Circulating angiogenic factors in the pathogenesis and prediction of preeclampsia. Hypertension46(5), 1077–1085 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abid M, Schoots I, Spokes K, Wu S, Mawhinney C, Aird W. Vascular endothelial growth factor-mediated induction of manganese superoxide dismutase occurs through redox-dependent regulation of forkhead and IκB/NF-κB. J. Biol. Chem.279(42), 44030–44038 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Abid M, Tsai J, Spokes K, Deshpande S, Irani K, Aird W. Vascular endothelial growth factor induces manganese-superoxide dismutase expression in endothelial cells by a Rac1-regulated NADPH oxidase-dependent mechanism. FASEB J.15(13), 2548–2550 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard SE, Venkatesha S, Thadhani R, Karumanchi SA. Soluble Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 and endothelial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Pediatr. Res.57(5 Pt 2), 1R–7R (2005).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karumanchi SA, Bdolah Y. Hypoxia and sFlt-1 in preeclampsia: the “chicken-and-egg” question. Endocrinology145(11), 4835–4837 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsatsaris V, Goffin F, Munaut C et al. Overexpression of the soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor in preeclamptic patients: pathophysiological consequences. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.88(11), 5555–5563 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu F, Longo M, Tamayo E et al. The effect of over-expression of sFlt-1 on blood pressure and the occurrence of other manifestations of preeclampsia in unrestrained conscious pregnant mice. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.196(4), 396e1–396e7 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Vuorela P, Helske S, Hornig C, Alitalo K, Weich H, Halmesmaki E. Amniotic fluid-soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 in preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol.95(3), 353–357 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall RL, Wang G, Thomas KA. Identification of a natural soluble form of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, FLT-1, and its heterodimerization with KDR. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.226(2), 324–328 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridges JP, Gilbert JS, Colson D et al. Oxidative stress contributes to soluble Fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 induced vascular dysfunction in pregnant rats. Am. J. Hypertens. DOI:10.1038/ajh.2009.24 (Epub ahead of print) (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bando H, Weich HA, Brokelmann M et al. Association between intratumoral free and total VEGF, soluble VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and prognosis in breast cancer. Br. J. Cancer92(3), 553–561 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrara N, Frantz G, LeCouter J et al. Differential expression of the angiogenic factor genes vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and endocrine gland-derived VEGF in normal and polycystic human ovaries. Am. J. Pathol.162(6), 1881–1893 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toi M, Matsumoto T, Bando H. Vascular endothelial growth factor: its prognostic, predictive, and therapeutic implications. Lancet Oncol.2(11), 667–673 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viloria-Petit A, Miquerol L, Yu JL et al. Contrasting effects of VEGF gene disruption in embryonic stem cell-derived versus oncogene-induced tumors. EMBO J.22(16), 4091–4102 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sabbah M, Emami S, Redeuilh G et al. Molecular signature and therapeutic perspective of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transitions in epithelial cancers. Drug Resist.Updat.11(4–5), 123–151 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rak J, Yu JL, Klement G, Kerbel RS. Oncogenes and angiogenesis: signaling three-dimensional tumor growth. J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc.5(1), 24–33 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanahan D, Folkman J. Patterns and emerging mechanisms of the angiogenic switch during tumorigenesis. Cell86(3), 353–364 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim KJ, Li B, Winer J et al. Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor-induced angiogenesis suppresses tumour growth in vivo. Nature362(6423), 841–844 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurwitz HI, Fehrenbacher L, Hainsworth JD et al. Bevacizumab in combination with fluorouracil and leucovorin: an active regimen for first-line metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.23(15), 3502–3508 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler A, Gray R, Perry MC et al. Paclitaxel–carboplatin alone or with bevacizumab for non-small-cell lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.355(24), 2542–2550 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baka S, Clamp AR, Jayson GC. A review of the latest clinical compounds to inhibit VEGF in pathological angiogenesis. Expert Opin. Ther. Targets10(6), 867–876 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masuyama H, Nakatsukasa H, Takamoto N, Hiramatsu Y. Correlation between soluble endoglin, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, and adipocytokines in preeclampsia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.92(7), 2672–2679 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jerkic M, Rivas-Elena JV, Prieto M et al. Endoglin regulates nitric oxide-dependent vasodilatation. FASEB J.18(3), 609–611 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu Y, Lewis DF, Wang Y. Placental productions and expressions of soluble endoglin, soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase receptor-1, and placental growth factor in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.93(1), 260–266 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goumans MJ, Liu Z, ten DP. TGF-β signaling in vascular biology and dysfunction. Cell Res.19(1), 116–127 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez-Elsner T, Botella LM, Velasco B, Corbi A, Attisano L, Bernabeu C. Synergistic cooperation between hypoxia and transforming growth factor-β pathways on human vascular endothelial growth factor gene expression. J. Biol. Chem.276(42), 38527–38535 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang Y, Siegel PM, Shu W et al. A multigenic program mediating breast cancer metastasis to bone. Cancer Cell3(6), 537–549 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masuyama H, Nakatsukasa H, Takamoto N, Hiramatsu Y. Correlation between soluble endoglin, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, and adipocytokines in preeclampsia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.92(7), 2672–2679 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Criswell TL, Dumont N, Barnett JV, Arteaga CL. Knockdown of the transforming growth factor-β type III receptor impairs motility and invasion of metastatic cancer cells. Cancer Res.68(18), 7304–7312 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SH, Mizutani N, Mizutani M et al. Endoglin (CD105) is a target for an oral DNA vaccine against breast cancer. Cancer Immunol. Immunother.55(12), 1565–1574 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts AB, Wakefield LM. The two faces of transforming growth factor β in carcinogenesis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA100(15), 8621–8623 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhurst RJ, Derynck R. TGF-β signaling in cancer – a double-edged sword. Trends Cell. Biol.11(11), S44–S51 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotello RJ, Lieberman RC, Purchio AF, Gerschenson LE. Coordinated regulation of apoptosis and cell proliferation by transforming growth factor β 1 in cultured uterine epithelial cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA88(8), 3412–3415 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel P, Varghese E, Ding G et al. Transforming growth factor β induces mesangial cell apoptosis through NO- and p53-dependent and -independent pathways. J. Investig. Med.48(6), 403–410 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang CF, Westbrook R, Ma J, Cao D. Transforming growth factor-β signaling in breast cancer. Front. Biosci.12, 4393–4401 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bierie B, Gorska AE, Stover DG, Moses HL. TGF-β promotes cell death and suppresses lactation during the second stage of mammary involution. J. Cell. Physiol.219(1), 57–68 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levy L, Hill CS. Alterations in components of the TGF-β superfamily signaling pathways in human cancer. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev.17(1–2), 41–58 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watabe T, Miyazono K. Roles of TGF-β family signaling in stem cell renewal and differentiation. Cell Res.19(1), 103–115 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Mani SA, Guo W, Liao MJ et al. The epithelial–mesenchymal transition generates cells with properties of stem cells. Cell133(4), 704–715 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolini A, Carpi A, Rossi G. Cytokines in breast cancer. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev.17(5), 325–337 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeger H, Wallwiener D, Mueck AO. Effects of estradiol and progestogens on tumor-necrosis factor-α-induced changes of biochemical markers for breast cancer growth and metastasis. Gynecol. Endocrinol.24(10), 576–579 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang T, Niu G, Kortylewski M et al. Regulation of the innate and adaptive immune responses by Stat-3 signaling in tumor cells. Nat. Med.10(1), 48–54 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnea ER, MacLusky NJ, DeCherney AH, Naftolin F. Catechol-O-methyl transferase activity in the human term placenta. Am. J. Perinatol.5(2), 121–127 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukui M, Zhu BT. Mechanism of 2-methoxyestradiol-induced apoptosis and growth arrest in human breast cancer cells. Mol. Carcinog.48(1), 66–78 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Cicek M, Iwaniec UT, Goblirsch MJ et al. 2-Methoxyestradiol suppresses osteolytic breast cancer tumor progression in vivo. Cancer Res.67(21), 10106–10111 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar