Camelpox: epidemiology, diagnosis and control measures

References

• Azwai SM, Carter SD, Woldehiwet Z. Monoclonal antibodies against camel (Camelus dromedarius) IgG, IgM and light chains. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol.45, 175–184 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• OIE Manual. Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. 6th Edition. Volume 2, Chapter 2.7.14. OIE, France (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Wernery U, Kaaden OR. Camel pox. In: Infectious Diseases in Camelids, Second Edition. Wernery U, Kaaden OR (Eds). Blackwell Science Berlin, Vienna, 176–185 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Leese S. Two diseases of young camels. J. Trop. Vet. Sci.4, 1 (1909).
   Google Scholar
• Hafez SM, Al-Sukayran A, dela Cruz D et al. Development of a live cell culture camelpox vaccine. Vaccine8(10), 533–539 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Jezek Z, Kriz B, Rothbaur V. Camelpox and its risk to the human population. J. Hyg. Epi. Microbio. Immunol.27, 29–42 (1983).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Al-Ziabi O, Nishikawa H, Meyer H. The first outbreak of camelpox in Syria. J. Vet. Med. Sci.69(5), 541–543 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davies FG, Mungai JN, Shaw T. Characteristics of a Kenyan camelpox virus. J. Hyg.7, 381–385 (1975).
   Google Scholar
• Kriz B. A study of camelpox in Somalia. J. Comp. Pathol.92, 1–8 (1982).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ICTV. Virus Taxonomy: 8th Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Fauquet CM, Mayo MA, Maniloff J, Desselberger U, Ball LA. (Eds), 123, Academic Press (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Mahnel H, Bartenbach G. Classification of camelpox virus (CPV). Zentralbl Veterinarmed B.20(7), 762–766 (1973).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baxby D. Smallpox viruses from camels in Iran. Lancet7786, 1063–1065 (1972).
   Google Scholar
• Fenner F, Wittek R, Dumbell KR. The Orthopoxviruses. Academic Press Inc., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, NY, USA (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Bedson HS. Camelpox and smallpox. Lancet2, 1253 (1972).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baxby D. Differentiation of smallpox and camelpox viruses in cultures of human and monkey cells. J. Hyg.72, 251–254 (1974).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Esposito JJ, Knight JC. Orthopoxvirus DNA: a comparison of restriction profiles and maps. Virology143, 230–251 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baxby D, Ramyar H, Hessami M, Ghaboosi B. A comparison of the response of camels to intradermal inoculation with camelpox and smallpox viruses. Infect. Immun.11, 617–621 (1975).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gubser C, Smith GL. The sequence of camelpox virus shows it is most closely related to variola virus, the cause of smallpox. J. Gen. Virol.83(4), 855–872 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sheikh Ali HM, Khalafalla AI, Nimir AH. Detection of camel pox and vaccinia viruses by polymerase chain reaction. Trop. Anim. Health. Prod.41(3), 393–396 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Afonso CL, Tulman ER, Lu Z et al. The genome of camelpox virus. Virology295(1), 1–9 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borisovich YuF. Camel pox. Ospa verblyudov, Variola camelina. In: Maloizvestnye Zaraznye Bolezni Zhivotnykh (Little-Known Contagious Diseases of Animals) Orlov FM (Ed.). Izdatel’stvo Kolos, USSR, 2nd Edition, 32–42 (Ru) (1973).
   Google Scholar
• Duraffour S, Snoeck R, Krecmerova M et al. Activities of several classes of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates against camelpox virus replication in different cell culture models. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother,51(12), 4410–4419 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss B. Poxviridae: the viruses and their replication. In: Field’s Virology, Fourth Edition. Knipe DM, Howley PM (Eds). Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2849–2883 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Murphy FA, Gibbs, EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ. Veterinary Virology. 3rd Edition. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA, 282 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Engelstad M, Smith GL. The vaccinia virus 42-kDa envelope protein is required for the envelopment and egressof extracellular virus and for virus virulence. Virology194, 627–637 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Isaacs SN, Wolffe EJ, Payne LG, Moss B. Characterization of a vaccinia virus-encoded 42-kilodalton classI membrane glycoprotein component of the extracellular virus envelope. J. Virol.66, 7217–7224 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martinez-Pomares L, Stern RJ, Moyer RW. The ps/hr gene (B5R open reading frame homolog) of rabbitpox virus controls pock color, is a component of extracellular enveloped virus, and is secreted into the medium. J. Virol.67, 5450–5462 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Balamurugan V, Bhanuprakash V, Hosamani M, Srinivasan VA, Singh RK. Comparative sequence analyses of B5R gene of Indian camelpox virus isolates with other orthopoxviruses. Indian J. Virol.19(20), 34–38 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Tantawi HH, Saban MS, Reda IM, El-Dahaby H. Camelpox virus in Egypt I – isolation and characterization. Bull. Epizoot. Dis. Africa.22(4), 315–319 (1974).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Al-Falluji MM, Tantawi HH, Shony MO. Isolation, identification and characterization of camelpox virus in Iraq. J. Hyg. Camb.83, 267–272 (1979).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khalafalla AI, Mohamed MEH, Ali BH. Camel pox in the Sudan and its isolation and identification of the causative virus. J. Camel Pract. Res.5(2), 229–233 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Coetzer JAW. Poxviridae. In: Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Second Edition. Coetzer JAW, Tustin RC (Eds). Oxford University Press, Southern Africa, 2, 1265–1267 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Buchnev KN, Sadykov RG. On camelpox in Kazakhstan (in Russian 1. Tr. Nauchno-issledov). Vet. Instituta Alma-Ata15, 12 (1969).
   Google Scholar
• Wilson RT, Araya A, Melaku A. The one humped camel. An analytical and annoated Bibliography 1980–1989. Animal Production and Health Section, Joint FAO/IAEA, Division for Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Wien, Austria (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Davies FG, Mbugua H, Atema C, Wilson A. The prevalence of antibody to camelpox virus in six different herds in Kenya. J. Comp. Path.95, 633–635 (1985).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Munz E, Kropp E, Reimann M. Demonstration of antibodies against Orthopoxvirus cameli in sera of East African dromedaries by ELISA. J. Vet. Med. B.3, 221–230 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Fassi-Fehri MM. Diseases of camels. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz.6, 337–354 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Ramyar H, Hessami M. Isolation, cultivation and characterisation of camelpox virus. Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin.19(3), 182–189 (1972).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Higgins AJ, Silvey RE, Abdelghafir AE, Kitching RP. The epidemiology and control of an outbreak of camelpox in Bahrain. Proc. 1st. Int. Camel Conf.101–104 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Kaaden OR, Walz A, Czerny CP, Wernery U. Progress in the development of a camelpox vaccine. Proc. 1st. Int. Camel Conf.47–49 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Al Hendi AB, Abuelzein EM, Gameel AA, Hassanein MM. A slow-spreading mild form of camelpox infection. J. Vet. Med. B.41, 71–73 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Marrenikova SS, Shenkman LS, Shelukhina EM, Malsova NN. Isolation of camelpox virus and investigation of its properties. Acta Virol.18, 423–428 (1974).
   Google Scholar
• Chauhan RS, Kaushik RK. Isolation of camelpox virus in India. Br. Vet. J.143, 581–582 (1987).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pfahler WHE, Munz E. Camelpox. Int. J. Anim. Sci.4, 109–114 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Hafez SM, Eissa YM, Amjad AM, Al-Sharif AK, Al-Sukayran A, dela Cruz D. Preliminary studies on camelpox in Saudi Arabia. In: Programme and Abstracts of the 9th Symposium on the Biological Aspects of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh. March (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Abu Alzein EM, Gameel AA, Ramadan RO, Housawi FM. An eruptive moderate form of camelpox infection in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia. Rev. Sci. Tech.18, 749–752 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Al-Ani MOA, Al-Salihy RA. Camelpox in Iraq. Bull. Anim. Hlth. Prod. Afr.36, 394–397 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• Hussein MF, Al-Mufarrej SL. Some clinicopathological aspects of camelpox in Saudi Arabia. J. king. Saud. Univ., Agric. Sci.11(2), 113–120 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Ommer Dafalla MA, Abdelhamid Elfadil AM. Epidemiologic and clinical features of camelpox in Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. Vet. Res.1(3), 65–67 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Pfeffer M, Meyer H, Wernery U, Kaaden OR. Comparison of camelpox viruses isolated in Dubai. Vet. Microbiol.49, 135–146 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Odend’Hal S. The Geographical Distribution of Animal Viral Diseases. Academic Press, NY, USA, 99 (1983).
   Google Scholar
• Chauhan RS, Kulshreshtha RC, Kaushik RK. Epidemiological studies of viral diseases of livestock in Haryana State. Ind. J. Virol.1(1), 10–16 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• Chauhan RS, Kaushik RK, Gupta SC, Satiya KC, Kulshreshtha RC. Prevalence of differential diseases in camels (Camelus dromedaries) in India. Camel New letter3, 10–14 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Khanna ND, Uppal PK, Sharma N, Tripathi BN. Occurrence of pox infections in camels. Ind. Vet. J.73(8), 813–817 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Renner-Muller IC, Meyer H, Munz E. Characterization of camelpox virus isolates from Africa and Asia. Vet. Microbio.45, 371–381 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz, Sabine, Schwartz HJ, Wilson AJ. Eine fotographische Dokumentation wishtiger Kamelkrankheiten in Kenia. Der. Prakt. Tierarzt.11, 985–989 (1982).
   Google Scholar
• Kropp EM. Kamelpocken – eine synoptische Darstellung sowie der Nachweis von Antikorpern in ostafrikanischen Dromedarseren mit einem ELISA. Vet. Med. Diss. Munchen, Germany (1985).
   Google Scholar
• Gitao CG. An investigation of camelpox outbreaks in two principal camel (Camelus dromedarius) rearing areas of Kenya. Rev. Sci. Tech.16, 841–847 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard D. Manuel des maladies du dromadaire. Projet de derveloppement de l’elevage dans le Niger centre-est. Maisons Alfort, IEMVT (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen-ba-vy, Richard D, Gillet JP. Characterization of an orthopoxvirus of camels from Niger. Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop.42, 19–25 (1989).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shommein AM, Osman AM. Diseases of camels in the Sudan. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz.6, 481–484 (1987).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roslyakov AA. Comparative ultrastructure of camelpox virus, the virus of a pox-like disease of camels (‘auzdyk’) and contagious ecthyma virus. Vopr. Virusol.17, 26–30 (1972).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Buchnev KN, Tulepbaev SZ, Sansyzbaev AR. Infectious diseases of camels in the USSR. Revue. Sci. Tech.6, 487–495 (1987).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Champak Bhakat, Chaturvedi D, Raghavendra S, Nagpaul PK. Studies on camel management under various microenvironment of shelter systems. Indian J. Dairy Sci.57(5), 347–353 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Azwai SM, Carter SD, Woldehiwet Z, Wernery U. Serology of Orthopoxvirus cameli infection in dromedary camels: analysis by ELISA and western blotting. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.19(1), 65–78 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khalafalla AI, Mohamed MEH, Agab H. Serological survey in camels of the Sudan for prevalence of antibodies to camelpox virus using ELISA technique. J. Camel Pract. Res.5(2), 197–200 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Mayer A, Czerny CP. Camelpox virus. In: Virus Infections of Vertebrates. Vol. 3, Virus Infections of Ruminants, Dinter Z. Morein B (Eds). Elsevier Science Publisher BV, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, Tokyo, 19–22 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Nothelfer HB, Wernery U, Czerny CP. Camel pox: antigen detection within skin lesions – immunohistochemistry as a simple method of etiological diagnosis. J. Camel Pract. Res.2(2), 119–121 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Wernery U, Kaaden OR, Ali M. Orthopox virus infections in dromedary camels in United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) during winter season. J. Camel Pract. Res.4(1), 51–55 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Wernery U, Meyer H, Pfeffer M. Camel pox in the United Arab Emirates and its prevention. J. Camel Pract. Res.4(2), 135–139 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Bhanuprakash V, Balamurugan V, Hosamani M et al. Isolation and characterization of Indian isolates of camel pox virus. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. DOI: 10.1007/s11250-010-9560-z (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Khalfalla AI, Mohamed MEM. Camel pox in the Sudan. J. Camel Prac. Res.5(2), 235–238 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Borisovich YF, Orekhov MD. Camel pox. Veterinariya (Moscow)3, 50–52 (1966).
   Google Scholar
• Khalafalla AI, Mohamed MEH. Clinical and epizootiological features of camelpox in eastern Sudan. J. Camel Prac. Res. (2), 99–102 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Pfeffer M, Neubauer H, Wernery U, Kaaden OR, Meyer H. Fatal form of camelpox virus infection. Vet. J.155, 107–109 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yager JA, Scott DW, Wilcock BP. Viral diseases of the skin. In: Pathology of Domestic Animals, Fourth Edition. Jubb KVF, Kennedy PC, Palmer N (Eds). Academic Press, San Diego, USA, 629–644 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Kinne J, Cooper JE, Wernery U. Pathological studies on camelpox lesions of the respiratory system in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). J. Comp. Pathol.118, 257–266 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wernery U, Zachariah R. Experimental camel pox infection in vaccinated and unvaccinated dromedaries. J. Vet. Med. [B] Infect. Dis.46(2), 131–136 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Khalafalla AI, El Dirdiri GA. Laboratory and field investigations of a live attenuated and an inactivated camelpox vaccine. J. Camel Prac. Res.10(2), 191–200 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Najarro P, Traktman P, Lewis JA. Vaccinia virus blocks gamma interferon signal transduction: viral VH1 phosphatase reverses Stat1 activation. J. Virol.75(7), 3185–3196 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowie A, Kiss-Toth E, Symons JA, Smith GL, Dower SK, O’Neill LA. A46R and A52R from vaccinia virus are antagonists of host IL-1 and Toll-like receptor signaling. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA97(18), 10162–10167 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss B, Shisler JL. Immunology 101 at poxvirus U: immune evasion genes. Semin. Immunol.13(1), 59–66 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perkus ME, Goebel SJ, Davis SW et al. Vaccinia virus host range genes. Virology179(1), 276–286 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kotwal GJ, Hugin AW, Moss B. Mapping and insertional mutagenesis of a vaccinia virus gene encoding a 13800-Da secreted protein. Virology171(2), 579–587 (1989).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Betakova T, Wolffe EJ, Moss B. The vaccinia virus A14.5L gene encodes a hydrophobic 53-amino-acid virion membrane protein that enhances virulence in mice and is conserved among vertebrate poxviruses. J. Virol.74(9), 4085–4092 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barry M, Hnatiuk S, Mossman K, Lee SF, Boshkov L, McFadden G. The myxoma virus M-T4 gene encodes a novel RDEL-containing protein that is retained within the endoplasmic reticulum and is important for the productive infection of lymphocytes. Virology239(2), 360–377 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Senkevich TG, Wolffe EJ, Buller RML. Ectromelia virus RING finger protein is localized in virus factories and is required for virus replication in macrophages. J. Virol.69(7), 4103–4111 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mossman K, Lee SF, Barry M, Boshkov L, McFadden G. Disruption of M-T5, a novel myxoma virus gene member of poxvirus host range superfamily, results in dramatic attenuation of myxomatosis in infected European rabbits. J. Virol.70, 4394–4410 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcami A, Smith GL. Vaccinia, cowpox, and camelpox viruses encode soluble gamma interferon receptors with novel broad species specificity. J. Virol.69, 4633–4639 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Symons JA, Alcami A, Smith GL. Vaccinia virus encodes a soluble type I interferon receptor of novel structure and broad species specificity. Cell81, 551–560 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcami A, Symons JA, Collins PD, Williams TJ, Smith GL. Blockade of chemokine activity by a soluble chemokine binding protein from vaccinia virus. J. Immunol.160, 624–633 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcami A, Khanna A, Paul NL, Smith GL. Vaccinia virus strains Lister, USSR and Evans express soluble and cell surface tumour necrosis factors receptor. J. Gen. Virol.80, 949–959 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blomquist MC, Hunt LT, Barker WC. Vaccinia virus 19-kilodalton protein: relationship several mammalian proteins, including two growth factors. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA81, 7363–7367 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotwal GJ, Isaacs SN, McKenzie R, Frank MM, Moss B. Inhibition of the complement cascade by the major secretory protein of vaccinia virus. Science250, 827–830 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner PC, Musy PY, Moyer RW. Poxvirus serpins. In: Viroceptors, Virokines and Related Immune Modulators Encoded by DNA Viruses. McFadden G (Ed.). RG Landes, TX, USA, 67–88 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Smith GL, Symons JA, Alcami A. Poxviruses; interfering with interferon. Semin. Virol.8, 409–418 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Walter L, Marynen P, Szpirer J, Levan G, Gunther E. Identification of a novel conserved human gene, TEGT. Genomics28, 301–304 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kumar KN, Tilakaratne N, Johnson PS, Allen AE, Michaelis EK. Cloning of cDNA for the glutamate-binding subunit of an NMDA receptor complex. Nature354, 70–73 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xu Q, Reed JC. Bax inhibitor-1, a mammalian apoptosis suppressor identified by functional screening in yeast. Molecular Cell1, 337–346 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawai M, Pan L, Reed JC, Uchimiya H. Evolutionally conserved plant homologue of the Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) gene capable of suppressing Bax-induced cell death in yeast(1). FEBS Letters464, 143–147 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz DA, Katayama CD, Hedrick SM. Schlafen, a new family of growth regulatory genes that affect thymocyte development. Immunity9, 657–668 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shchelkunov SN, Safronov PF, Totmenin AV et al. The genomic sequence analysis of the left and right species-specific terminal region of a cowpox virus strain reveals unique sequences and a cluster of intact ORFs for immunomodulatory and host range proteins. Virology243, 432–460 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eskra L, Mathison A, Splitter G. Microarray analysis of mRNA levels from RAW264.7 macrophages infected with Brucella abortus. Infect. Immun.71, 1125–1133 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Geserick P, Kaiser F, Klemm U, Kaufmann SH, Zerrahn J. Modulation of T cell development and activation by novel members of the Schlafen (slfn) gene family harbouring an RNA helicase-like motif. Int. Immunol.16, 1535–1548 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcami A, Symons JA, Khanna A, Smith GL. Poxviruses: capturing cytokines and chemokines. Semin. Virol.8, 419–427 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Pfeffer M, Wernery U, Kaaden OR, Meyer H. Diagnostic procedures for poxvirus infections in camelids. J. Camel Pract. Res.5(2), 189–195 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Wernery U. Viral infections in camels – a review. J. Camel Pract. Res.2(1), 1–12 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Munz E, Otterbein CK, Meyer H, Renner I. A laboratory investigation to demonstrate a decreased virulence of two cell culture adapted African camelpox virus isolates as possible vaccine candidates. J. Camel Prac. Res.4, 169–175 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Czerny CP, Meyer H, Mahnel H. Establishment of an ELISA for the detection of orthopoxviruses based on neutralizing monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. J. Vet. Med. B Infect. Dis. Vet. Public Health36, 537–546 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Johann S, Czerny CP. A rapid antigen-capture ELISA for the detection of orthopoxviruses. J. Vet. Med. [B]40, 569–581 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Balamurugan V, Bhanuprakash V, Hosamani M et al. A polymerase chain reaction strategy for the diagnosis of camelpox. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest.21(2), 231–237 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sadykov RG. Cultivation of camelpox virus in chick embryos. In: Virusnye Bolezni Selskokhozayaystvennykh Zhivotnykh, Part I. Moscow, 55 (1970) (In Russian).
   Google Scholar
• Tantawi HH, EI-Dahaby H, Fahmy LS. Comparative studies on poxvirus strains isolated from camels. Acta Virol.22, 451–457 (1978).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• El-Kenawy A, Abdel-Galil Y, El-Mekkawi M, Enany M. Studies on camel pox virus isolated from camels in Sharkia govemorate. J. Egyptian Vet. Med. Assoc.49, 389–395 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Marodam V, Nagendrakumar SB, Tanwar VK et al. Isolation and identification of camelpox virus. Indian J. Animal Sci.76, 326–327 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Marennikova SS. The results of examinations of wildlife monkeys for the presence of antibodies and viruses of the pox group. Vopr. Virusol.3, 321–326 (1975).
   Google Scholar
• Schgal CL. Camelpox. In: Report of Summer Institute on Animal Poxviruses. GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, India, 161–163 (1977).
   Google Scholar
• Boulther EA, Zwartouw HT, Titmuss DH, Maber HB. The nature of the immune state produced by inactivated vaccinia virus in rabbits. Am. J. Epidem.94, 612–618 (1971).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marennikova SS, Malceva NN, Habahpaseva NA. ELISA – a simple test for detecting and differentiating antibodies to closely related orthopoxviruses. Bull. World Health Organ.59, 365–369 (1981).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Munz E, Schillinger D, Reimann M, Mahnel H. Electron microscopical diagnosis of Ecthyma contagiosum in camels (Camelus dromedarius): first report of the disease in Kenya. J. Vet. Med. B.33, 73–77 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Munz E, Moallin AS, Mahnel H, Reimann M. Camel papillomatosis in Somalia. Zbl. Vet. B.37, 191–196 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Pfahler WHE, Reimann M, Munz E. A bitoin-avidin amplified enzyme immunoassay for detection and quantitation of orthopox virus camel antibodies in dromedaries. J. Vet. Med. B.33, 477–484 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Arita M, Tagaya I. Structural polypeptides of several strains of orthopoxvirus. Microbiol. Immun.21, 343–346 (1977).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Esposito JJ, Obijeski JF, Nakano JH. The virion and soluble antigen proteins of variola, monkeypox and vaccinia viruses. J. Med. Virol.1, 95–110 (1977).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• November FJ, Raska K Jr, Holowczak JA. The immune response to vaccinia virus infection in mice: analysis of the role of antibody. Arch. Virol.107, 273–289 (1989).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gubser C, Goodbody R, Ecker A et al. Camelpox virus encodes a Schlafen-like protein that affects orthopoxvirus virulence. J. Gen. Virol.88(6), 1667–1676 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sullivan JT, Mercer AA, Fleming SB, Robinson AJ. Identification and characterization of an orf virus homologue of the vaccinia virus gene encoding the major envelope protein p37K. Virology202, 471–478 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyer H, Pfeffer M, Rziha HJ. Sequence alterations within and downstream of the A-type inclusion protein genes allow differentiation of Orthopoxvirus species by polymerase chain reaction. J. Gen. Virol.75, 1975–1981 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Damaso CR, Esposito JJ, Condit RC, Moussatche N. An emergent poxvirus from humans and cattle in Rio de Janeiro state: Cantagalo virus may derive from Brazilian small pox vaccine. Virology277, 439–449 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapa S, Mikheev M, Shchelkunov S et al. Species-level identification of orthopoxviruses with an oligonucleotide. Microchip J. Clin. Microbiol.40, 753–757 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahay B. Evalugation of gene silencing by RNA interference (RNAi) in control of animal virus infections. PhD thesis. Deemed University, IVRI, Izatnagar, India (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Khalafalla AI, Buttner M, Rziha HJ. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for rapid diagnosis and differentiation of para- and orthopox virus infections in camels. FAO/IAEA International Animal Production and Health in Developing Countries, 6–10 October 2003, Vienna, Austria (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Ropp SL, Jin Q, Knight JC, Massung RF, Esposito JJ. PCR strategy for identification and differentiation of small pox and other orthopoxviruses. J. Clin. Microbiol.33, 2069–2076 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huemer HP, Honlinger B, Hopfl R. A simple restriction fragment PCR approach for discrimination of human pathogenic old world animal orthopoxvirus species. Can. J. Microbiol.54, 159–162 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Panning M, Asper M, Kramme S, Schmitz H, Drosten C. Rapid detection and differentiation of human pathogenic orthopox viruses by a fluorescence resonance energy transfer real-time PCR assay. Clin. Chem.50, 702–708 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nitsche A, Ellerbrok H, Pauli, G. Detection of orthopoxvirus DNA by real-time PCR and variola virus DNA by melting analysis. J. Clin. Microbiol.42(3), 1207–1213 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Clercq E. Vaccinia virus inhibitors as a paradigm for the chemotherapy of poxvirus infections. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.14(2), 382–397(2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snoeck R, Andrei G, De Clercq E. Therapy of poxvirus infections. In: Poxviruses. Mercer AA, Schmidt A, Weber O (Eds), Birkha¨user, Basel, Switzerland, 375–395 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Sliva K, Schnierle B. From actually toxic to highly specific-novel drugs against poxviruses. Virol. J.4, 8 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xiong X, Smith JL, Kim C, Huang E, Chen MS. Kinetic analysis of the interaction of cidofovir diphosphate with human cytomegalovirus DNA polymerase. Biochem. Pharmacol.51, 1563–1567 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smee DF, Sidwell RW, Kefauver D, Bray M, Huggins JW. Characterization of wild-type and cidofovir-resistant strains of camelpox, cowpox, monkeypox, and vaccinia viruses. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.46, 1329–1335 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrei G, Gammon DB, Fiten P et al. Cidofovir resistance in vaccinia virus is linked to diminished virulence in mice. J. Virol.80(19), 9391–9401 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Kornbluth RS, Smee DF, Sidwell RW, Snarsky V, Evans DH, Hostetler KY. Mutations in the E9L polymerase gene of cidofovir-resistant vaccinia virus strain WR are associated with the drug resistance phenotype. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.50(12), 4038–4043 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gammon DB, Snoeck R, Fiten P et al. Mechanism of antiviral drug resistance of vaccinia virus: identification of residues in the viral DNA polymerase conferring differential resistance to antipoxvirus drugs. J. Virol.82(24), 12520–12534 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang G, Pevear DC, Davies MH et al. An orally bioavailable antipoxvirus compound (ST-246) inhibits extracellular virus formation and protects mice from lethal orthopoxvirus Challenge. J. Virol.79(20), 13139–13149 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berhanu A, King DS, Mosier S et al. ST-246 inhibits in vivo poxvirus dissemination, virus shedding, and systemic disease manifestation. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.53(12), 4999–5009 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan R, Tien D, Bolken TC et al. Single-dose safety and pharmacokinetics of ST-246, a novel orthopoxvirus egress inhibitor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother.52(5), 1721–1727 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grosenbach DW, Jordan R, King DS et al. Immune responses to the smallpox vaccine given in combination with ST-246, a small-molecule inhibitor of poxvirus dissemination. Vaccine26(7), 933–946 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quenelle DC, Prichard MN, Keith KA et al. Synergistic efficacy of the combination of ST-246 with CMX001 against orthopoxviruses, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.51(11), 4118–4124 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samartsev AA, Praksein ST. Camelpox study. Proc. Kazakh. Res.Vet. Institute5, 198–200 (1950).
   Google Scholar
• Buchnev KN, Sadykov RG. Contribution to the study of camelpox. Proceedings of the 3rd All-Union Conference on Virology, Part II, 152–153 (1967).
   Google Scholar
• Sedov VA. Official communication: measure for the prevention and eradication of camelpox. Veterinariya (Moscow)44, 295 12, 63–64 (1974).
   Google Scholar
• Krupenko SS. Camelpox caused by vaccinia virus. Veterinariya (Moscow) No.8, 61–62 (Ru) (1973).
   Google Scholar
• Higgins AJ. The camel in health and disease. Bailliere Tindall, London, UK, 168 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Mayr A, Eissner G, Mayr-Bibrack B. Handbuch der Schutzimpfungen in der Tiermedizin. Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany, 739 (1984).
   Google Scholar
• Mayr A. Geschichtlicher Uberblick uberdie Menschenpocken (Variola), die Eradikation von Variola und den attenuierten Pockenstamm MVA. Berl. Munch. Tierarzil. Wschr.112, 322–328 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EL-Harrak M, Loutfi C, Bertin F. Isolement et identification du virus de la variole du dromadaire au Maroc. Ann. Rech. Vet.22, 95–98 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• EL-Harrak M. Isolation of camlepox virus, development of an inactivated vaccine and prophylactic application in Morocco. Presented at: Ins. Meeting on Camel Production and Future Perspectives. Al Ain, UAE, May 2–3, 736 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Wernery U, Kaaden OR. Infectious diseases of camels. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, UK (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Wernery U, Kinne J, Zachariah R. Experimental camelpox infection in vaccinated and unvaccinated guanacos, J. Camel Pract. Res.7(2), 149–152 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Klopries M. Etablierung und Charakterisierung einer Kamelhautzellinie (Dubca). Vet. Med. Dissertation Munchen, Germany (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Kaaden OR, Wernery U, Klopries M. Camel fibroblast cell line Dubca and its use for diagnosis and prophylaxis of camel diseases. Presented at: The International Conference on Livestock Production in Hot Climates. Muscat, Oman, A49 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• De Clercq E. Cidofovir in the treatment of poxvirus infections. Antivir. Res.55, 1–13 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bera BC, Gnanavel V, Barua S et al. Zoonotic camelpox infections in India. Abstract: International Conference on ‘Protecting Animal Health: Facilitating Trade in Livestock and Livestock Products’ IAVMI, India, January 27–29, 197 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Funahashi S, Sato T, Shida H. Cloning and characterization of the gene encoding the major protein of the A-type inclusion body of cowpox virus. J. Gen. Virol.69, 35–47 (1988).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyer H, Rziha HJ. Characterization of the gene encoding the A-type inclusion protein of camelpox virus and sequence comparison with other orthopoxviruses. J. Gen. Virol.74, 1679–1684 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar