Diagnosis of acute leptospirosis

References

• Faine S, Adler B, Bolin C, Perolat P. Leptospira and Leptospirosis, 2nd Edition. MediSci, Melbourne, Australia (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Cerqueira GM, Picardeau M. A century of Leptospira strain typing. Infect. Genet. Evol.9, 760–768 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levett PN. Leptospirosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.14, 296–326 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bharti AR, Nally JE, Ricaldi JN et al. Leptospirosis: a zoonotic disease of global importance. Lancet Infect. Dis.3, 757–771 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride AJL, Athanazio DA, Reis MG, Ko AI. Leptospirosis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis.18, 376–386 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricaldi JN, Vinetz JM. Leptospirosis in the tropics and in travelers. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep.8, 51–58 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Victoriano AFB, Smythe LD, Gloriani-Barzaga N et al. Leptospirosis in the Asia Pacific region. BMC Infect. Dis.9, 147 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Human leptospirosis: guidance for diagnosis, surveillance, and control. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (2003).
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Leptospirosis worldwide, 1999. Weekly Epidemiol. Rec.74, 237–242 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hartskeerl RA. Leptospirosis: current status and future trends. Indian J. Med. Microbiol.24, 309 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ko AI, Reis MG, Dourado CM et al. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Lancet354, 820–825 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trevejo RT, Rigau-Perez JG, Ashford DA et al. Epidemic leptospirosis associated with pulmonary hemorrhage-Nicaragua, 1995. J. Infect. Dis.178, 1457–1463 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders EJ, Rigau-Pérez JG, Smith HL et al. Increase of leptospirosis in dengue-negative patients after a hurricane in Puerto Rico in 1996 (correction of 1966). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.61, 399–404 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangkanakul W, Tharmaphornpil P, Plikaytis BD et al. Risk factors associated with leptospirosis in northeastern Thailand, 1998. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.63, 204–208 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma S, Vijayachari P, Sugunan AP, Natarajaseenivasan K, Sehgal SC. Seroprevalence of leptospirosis among high-risk population of Andaman Islands, India. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.74, 278–283 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bharadwaj R, Bal AM, Joshi SA et al. An urban outbreak of leptospirosis in Mumbai, India. Jpn J. Infect. Dis.55, 194–196 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson MA, Smith H, Joseph P et al. Environmental exposure and leptospirosis, Peru. Emerg. Infect. Dis.10, 1016–1022 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinetz JM, Glass GE, Flexner CE et al. Sporadic urban leptospirosis. Ann. Intern. Med.125, 794–798 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koizumi N, Muto M, Tanikawa T et al. Human leptospirosis cases and the prevalence of rats harbouring Leptospira interrogans in urban areas of Tokyo, Japan. J. Med. Microbiol.58, 1227–1230 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narita M, Fujitani S, Haake DA, Paterson DL. Leptospirosis after recreational exposure to water in the Yaeyama Islands, Japan. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.73, 652–656 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura M, Taira K, Itokazu K et al. Sporadic cases and an outbreak of leptospirosis probably associated with recreational activities in rivers in the northern part of Okinawa Main Island. J. Vet. Med. Sci.68, 83–85 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardone A, Capek I, Baranton G et al. Risk factors for leptospirosis in Metropolitan France: results of a national case-control study, 1999–2000. Clin. Infect. Dis.39, 751–753 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sejvar J, Bancroft E, Winthrop K et al. Leptospirosis in Eco-Challenge athletes, Malaysian Borneo, 2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis.9, 702–707 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansen A, Schöneberg I, Frank C et al. Leptospirosis in Germany, 1962–2003. Emerg. Infect. Dis.11, 1048–1054 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavli A, Maltezou HC. Travel-acquired leptospirosis. J. Travel Med.15, 447–453 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan J, Bornstein SL, Karpati AM et al. Outbreak of leptospirosis among triathlon participants and community residents in Springfield, Illinois, 1998. Clin. Infect. Dis.34, 1593–1599 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern EJ, Galloway, R, Shadomy, SV et al. Outbreak of leptospirosis among Adventure Race participants in Florida, 2005. Clin. Infect. Dis.50, 843–849 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockmann S, Piechotowski I, Bock-Hensley O et al. Outbreak of leptospirosis among triathlon participants in Germany, 2006. BMC Infect. Dis.10, 91 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford DA, Kaiser RM, Spiegel RA et al. Asymptomatic infection and risk factors for leptospirosis in Nicaragua. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.63, 249–254 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovet P, Yersin C, Merien F, Davis CE, Perolat P. Factors associated with clinical leptospirosis: a population-based case–control study in the Seychelles (Indian Ocean). Int. J. Epidemiol.28, 583–590 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levett PN. Leptospirosis. In: Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th Edition. Mandell GL, Bennet JE, Dolin R (Eds). Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 3059–3065 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Farr RW. Leptospirosis. Clin. Infect. Dis.21, 1–6 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visith S, Kearkiat P. Nephropathy in leptospirosis. J. Postgrad. Med.51, 184–188 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Daher E, Zanetta DM, Cavalcante MB, Abdulkader RC. Risk factors for death and changing pattern in leptospirosis acute renal failure. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.61, 630–634 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards CN, Nicholson GD, Hassel TA, Everard COR, Callender J. Thrombocytopenia in leptospirosis: the absence of evidence for disseminated intravascular coagulation. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.35, 352–354 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicodemo AC, Duarte MIS, Alves DVAF et al. Lung lesions in human leptospirosis: microscopic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural features related to thrombocytopenia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.56, 181–187 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segura ER, Ganoza CA, Campos K et al. Clinical spectrum of pulmonary involvement in leptospirosis in a region of endemicity, with quantification of leptospiral burden. Clin. Infect. Dis.40, 343–351 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolhnikoff M, Mauad T, Bethlem EP, Carvalho CRR. Leptospiral pneumonias. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med.13, 230–235 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouveia EL, Metcalfe J, de Carvalho ALF et al. Leptospirosis-associated severe pulmonary hemorrhagic Syndrome, Salvador, Brazil. Emerg. Infect. Dis.14, 505–508 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sasaki DM, Pang L, Minette HP et al. Active surveillance and risk factors for leptospirosis in Hawaii. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.48, 35–43 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bal AM. Unusual clinical manifestations of leptospirosis. J. Postgrad. Med.51, 179–183 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wongsrichanalai C, Murray CK, Gray M et al. Co-infection with malaria and leptospirosis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.68, 583–585 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suputtamongkol Y, Niwattayakul K, Suttinont C et al. An open, randomized, controlled trial of penicillin, doxycycline, and cefotaxime for patients with severe leptospirosis. Clin. Infect. Dis.39, 1417–1424 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaRocque RC, Breiman RF, Ari MD et al. Leptospirosis during dengue outbreak, Bangladesh. Emerg. Infect. Dis.11, 766–769 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis T, Imrie A, Katz AR, Effler PV. Underrecognition of leptospirosis during dengue fever outbreak in Hawaii, 2001–2002. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis.8, 541–547 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown MG, Vickers IE, Salas RA, Smikle MF. Leptospirosis in suspected cases of dengue in Jamaica, 2002–2007. Trop. Doct.40, 92–94 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki SA, Shanbag P. Clinical manifestations of dengue and leptospirosis in children in Mumbai: an observational study. Infection38, 285–291 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faine S. The acute infection in man. In: Guidelines for the Control of Leptospirosis. World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland, 43–54 (1982).
   Google Scholar
• Kuriakose M, Eapen CK, Punnoose E, Koshi G. Leptospirosis – clinical spectrum and correlation with severe simple laboratory tests for the early diagnosis in the third world. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.84, 419–421 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sehgal SC. Recommendations of national symposium on leptospirosis. Indian J. Med. Microbiol.15, 211–212 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Bal AM, Kakrani AL, Bharadwaj RS et al. Evaluation of clinical criteria for the diagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Assoc. Physicians India50, 394–396 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shivakumar S, Shareek PS. Diagnosis of leptospirosis utilizing modified Faine’s criteria. J. Assoc. Physicians India52, 678–679 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dupont H, Dupont-Perdrizet D, Perie JL et al. Leptospirosis: prognostic factors associated with mortality. Clin. Infect. Dis.25, 720–724 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daher E, Zanetta DMT, Cavalcante MB, Abdulkader RCRM. Risk factors for death and changing patterns in leptospirosis acute renal failure. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.61, 630–634 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panaphut T, Domrongkitchaiporn S, Thinkamrop B. Prognostic factors of death in leptospirosis: a prospective cohort study in Khon Kaen, Thailand. Int. J. Infect. Dis.6, 525–529 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Esen S, Sunbul M, Leblebicioglu H, Eroglu C, Turan D. Impact of clinical and laboratory findings on prognosis in leptospirosis. Swiss Med. Wkly134, 347–352 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paganin F, Bourdin A, Dalban C et al. Leptospirosis in Reunion Island (Indian Ocean): analysis of factors associated with severity in 147 confirmed cases. Intensive Care Med.33, 1959–1966 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spichler AS, Vilaca PJ, Athanazio DA et al. Predictors of lethality in severe leptospirosis in urban Brazil. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.79, 911–914 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marotto PCF, Ko AI, Murta-Nascimento C et al. Early identification of leptospirosis-associated pulmonary hemorrhage syndrome by use of a validated prediction model. J. Infect.60, 218–223 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saengjaruk P, Chaicumpa W, Watt G et al. Diagnosis of human leptospirosis by monoclonal antibody-based antigen detection in urine. J. Clin. Microbiol.40, 480–489 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma R, Tuteja U, Khushiramani R, Shukla J, Batra HV. Application of monoclonal antibodies in a rapid sandwich dot-enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for identification and antigen detection of Leptospira serovars. Hybridoma27, 113–121 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wuthiekanun V, Chierakul W, Limmathurotsakul D et al. Optimization of culture of Leptospira from humans with leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.45, 1363–1365 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffith ME, Horvath LL, Mika WV et al. Viability of Leptospira in BacT/ALERT MB media. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.54, 263–266 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levett PN. Usefulness of serologic analysis as a predictor of the infecting serovar in patients with severe leptospirosis. Clin. Infect. Dis.36, 447–452 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz AR, Effler PV, Ansdell VE. Comparison of serology and isolates for the identification of infecting leptospiral serogroups in Hawaii, 1979–1998. Trop. Med. Int. Health8, 639–642 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smythe LD, Wuthiekanun V, Chierakul W et al. The microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is an unreliable predictor of infecting Leptospira serovar in Thailand. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.81, 695–697 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chappel RJ, Goris M, Palmer MF, Hartskeerl RA. Impact of proficiency testing on results of the microscopic agglutination test for diagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.42, 5484–5488 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits HL, Eapen CK, Sheela Sugathan S et al. Lateral-flow assay for rapid serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol.8, 166–169 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gussenhoven GC, van der Hoorn MA, Goris MG et al. LEPTO dipstick, a dipstick assay for detection of Leptospira-specific immunoglobulin M antibodies in human sera. J. Clin. Microbiol.35, 92–97 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winslow WE, Merry DJ, Pirc ML, Devine PL. Evaluation of a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of immunoglobulin M antibody in diagnosis of human leptospiral infection. J. Clin. Microbiol.35, 1938–1942 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levett PN, Whittington CU. Evaluation of the indirect hemagglutination assay for diagnosis of acute leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.36, 11–14 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits HL, van der Hoorn MA, Goris MG et al. Simple latex agglutination assay for rapid serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.38, 1272–1275 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Addamiano L, Babudieri B. Water strains of Leptospira in the serodiagnosis of human and animal leptospirosis. Bull. World Health Organ.39, 925–934 (1968).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner LH. Leptospirosis. II. Serology. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.62, 880–899 (1968).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuo K, Isogai E, Araki Y. Occurrence of [→3)-β-D-Manp-(1→4)-β-D-Manp-(1→]n units in the antigenic polysaccharides from Leptospira biflexa serovar patoc strain Patoc I. Carbohydr. Res.328, 517–524 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits HL, Ananyina YV, Chereshsky A et al. International multicenter evaluation of the clinical utility of a dipstick assay for detection of Leptospira-specific immunoglobulin M antibodies in human serum specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol.37, 2904–2909 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits HL, Hartskeerl RA, Terpstra WJ. International multi-centre evaluation of a dipstick assay for human leptospirosis. Trop. Med. Int. Health5, 124–128 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits HL, Chee HD, Eapen CK et al. Latex based, rapid and easy assay for human leptospirosis in a single test format. Trop. Med. Int. Health6, 114–118 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Effler PV, Bogard AK, Domen HY et al. Evaluation of eight rapid screening tests for acute leptospirosis in Hawaii. J. Clin. Microbiol.40, 1464–1469 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levett PN, Branch SL. Evaluation of two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods for detection of immunoglobulin M antibodies in acute leptospirosis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.66, 745–748 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijayachari P, Sugunan AP, Sehgal SC. Evaluation of Lepto Dri Dot as a rapid test for the diagnosis of leptospirosis. Epidemiol. Infect.129, 617–621 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bajani MD, Ashford DA, Bragg SL et al. Evaluation of four commercially available rapid serologic tests for diagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.41, 803–809 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sehgal SC, Vijayachari P, Sugunan AP, Umapathi T. Field application of Lepto lateral flow for rapid diagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Med. Microbiol.52, 897–901 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull-Jackson C, Glass MB, Ari MD et al. Evaluation of a commercial latex agglutination assay for serological diagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.44, 1853–1855 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride AJA, Santos BL, Queiroz A et al. Evaluation of four whole-cell Leptospira-based serological tests for diagnosis of urban leptospirosis. Clin. Vaccine Immunol.14, 1245–1248 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blacksell SD, Smythe L, Phetsouvanh R et al. Limited diagnostic capacities of two commercial assays for the detection of Leptospira immunoglobulin M antibodies in Laos. Clin. Vac. Immunol.13, 1166–1169 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Myint KS, Gibbons RV, Murray CK et al. Leptospirosis in Kamphaeng Phet, Thailand. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.76, 135–138 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerreiro H, Croda J, Flannery B et al. Leptospiral proteins recognized during the humoral immune response to leptospirosis in humans. Infect. Immun.69, 4958–4968 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doungchawee G, Kositanont U, Niwetpathomwat A et al. Early diagnosis of leptospirosis by immunoglobulin M immunoblot testing. Clin. Vac. Immunol.15, 492–498 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koizumi K, Watanabe H. Leptospirosis. In: Vaccines for Biodefense and Emerging and Neglected Diseases. Barrett ADT, Stanberry LR (Ed.). Academic Press, London, UK, 1291–1308 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Flannery B, Costa D, Carvalho FP et al. Evaluation of recombinant Leptospira antigen-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the serodiagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.39, 3303–3310 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo D, Xue F, Ojcius DM et al. Protein typing of major outer membrane lipoproteins from Chinese pathogenic Leptospira spp. and characterization of their immunogenicity. Vaccine28, 243–242 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natarajaseenivasan K, Vijayachari P, Sharma S et al. Serodiagnosis of severe leptospirosis: evaluation of ELISA based on the recombinant OmpL1 or LipL41 antigens of Leptospira interrogans serovar autumnalis. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.102, 699–708 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong H, Hu Y, Xue F et al. Characterization of the ompL1 gene of pathogenic Leptospira species in China and cross-immunogenicity of the OmpL1 protein. BMC Microbiol.8, 223 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsunaga J, Barocchi MA, Croda J et al. Pathogenic Leptospira species express surface-exposed proteins belonging to the bacterial immunoglobulin superfamily. Mol. Microbiol.49, 929–945 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koizumi N, Watanabe H. Leptospiral immunoglobulin-like proteins elicit protective immunity. Vaccine22, 1545–1552 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choy HA, Kelley MM, Chen TL et al. Physiological osmotic induction of Leptospira interrogans adhesion: LigA and LigB bind extracellular matrix proteins and fibrinogen. Infect. Immun.75, 2441–2450 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva EF, Medeiros MA, McBride AJ et al. The terminal portion of leptospiral immunoglobulin-like protein LigA confers protective immunity against lethal infection in the hamster model of leptospirosis. Vaccine25, 6277–6286 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin YP, Lee DW, McDonough SP et al. Repeated domains of Leptospira immunoglobulin-like proteins interact with elastin and tropoelastin. J. Biol. Chem.284, 19380–19391 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croda J, Ramos JGR, Matsunaga J et al.Leptospira immunoglobulin-like proteins as a serodiagnostic marker for acute leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.45, 1528–1534 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neves FO, Abreu PA, Vasconcellos SA et al. Identification of a novel potential antigen for early-phase serodiagnosis of leptospirosis. Arch. Microbiol.188, 523–532 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveira TR, Longhi MT, de Morais ZM et al. Evaluation of leptospiral recombinant antigens MPL17 and MPL21 for serological diagnosis of leptospirosis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Clin. Vac. Immunol.15, 1715–1722 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senthilkumar TMA, Subathra M, Phil M, Ramadass P, Ramaswamy V. Rapid serodiagnosis of leptospirosis by latex agglutination test and flow-through assay. Indian J. Med. Microbiol.26, 45–49 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boonyod D, Poovorawan Y, Bhattarakosol P, Chirathaworn C. LipL32, an outer membrane protein of Leptospira, as an antigen in a dipstick assay for diagnosis of leptospirosis. Asian Pac. J. Allergy Immunol.23, 133–141 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merien F, Baranton G, Perolat P. Comparison of polymerase chain reaction with microagglutination test and culture for diagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Infect. Dis.172, 281–285 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown PD, Gravekamp C, Carrington DG et al. Evaluation of the polymerase chain reaction for early diagnosis of leptospirosis. J. Med. Microbiol.43, 110–114 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koizumi N, Watanabe H, Umezawa K, Iiduka T, Inokuchi S. A case of leptospirosis diagnosed early by flaB-PCR. Kansenshogaku Zasshi.77, 627–630 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fonseca CA, Teixeira MMG, Romero EC et al.Leptospira DNA detection for the diagnosis of human leptospirosis. J. Infect.52, 15–22 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonseca CA, de Freitas VLT, Romero EC et al. Polymerase chain reaction in comparison with serological tests for early diagnosis of human leptospirosis. Trop. Med. Int. Health11, 1699–1707 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kositanont U, Rugsasuk S, Leelaporn A et al. Detection and differentiation between pathogenic and saprophytic Leptospira spp. by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.57, 117–122 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown PD, Carrington DG, Gravekamp C et al. Direct detection of leptospiral material in human postmortem samples. Res. Microbiol.154, 581–586 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smythe LD, Smith IL, Smith GA et al. A quantitative PCR (TaqMan) assay for pathogenic Leptospira spp. BMC Infect. Dis.2, 13 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palaniappan RU, Chang YF, Chang CF et al. Evaluation of lig-based conventional and real time PCR for the detection of pathogenic leptospires. Mol. Cell. Probes19, 111–117 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merien F, Portnoi D, Bourhy P et al. A rapid and quantitative method for the detection of Leptospira species in human leptospirosis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.249, 139–147 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levett PN, Morey RE, Galloway RL et al. Detection of pathogenic leptospires by real-time quantitative PCR. J. Med. Microbiol.54, 45–49 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slack AT, Symonds ML, Dohnt MF, Smythe LD. Identification of pathogenic Leptospira species by conventional or real-time PCR and sequencing of the DNA gyrase subunit B encoding gene. BMC Microbiol.6, 95 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slack A, Symonds M, Dohnt M et al. Evaluation of a modified Taqman assay detecting pathogenic Leptospira spp. against culture and Leptospira-specific IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in a clinical environment. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.57, 361–366 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoddard RA, Gee JE, Wilkins PP, McCaustland K, Hoffmaster AR. Detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp. through TaqMan polymerase chain reaction targeting the LipL32 gene. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.64, 247–255 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed A, Engelberts MFM, Boer KR, Ahmed N, Hartskeerl RA. Development and validation of a real-time PCR for detection of pathogenic Leptospira species in clinical materials. PLoS ONE4, e7093 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lourdault K, Aviat F, Picardeau M. Use of quantitative real-time PCR for studying the dissemination of Leptospira interrogans in the guinea pig infection model of leptospirosis. J. Med. Microbiol.58, 648–655 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin X, Chen Y, Lu Y, Yan J, Yan J. Application of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification method for the detection of pathogenic Leptospira. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.63, 237–242 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mori Y, Notomi T. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): a rapid, accurate, and cost-effective diagnostic method for infectious diseases. J. Infect. Chemother.15, 62–69 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganoza CA, Matthias MA, Saito M et al. Asymptomatic renal colonization of humans in the peruvian Amazon by Leptospira. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.4, e612 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Suputtamongkol Y, Pongtavornpinyo W, Lubell Y et al. Strategies for diagnosis and treatment of suspected leptospirosis: a cost–benefit analysis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.4, e610 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Hoorfar J, Wolffs P, Rådström P. Diagnostic PCR: validation and sample preparation are two sides of the same coin. APMIS112, 808–814 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klugman KP, Madhi SA, Albrich WC. Novel approaches to the identification of Streptococcus pneumoniae as the cause of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis.47, S202–S206 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimada T, Noguchi Y, Jackson JL et al. Systematic review and metaanalysis: urinary antigen tests for legionellosis. Chest136, 1576–1585 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren SX, Fu G, Jiang XG et al. Unique physiological and pathogenic features of Leptospira interrogans revealed by whole-genome sequencing. Nature422, 888–893 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nascimento AL, Ko AI, Martins EA et al. Comparative genomics of two Leptospira interrogans serovars reveals novel insights into physiology and pathogenesis. J. Bacteriol.186, 2164–2172 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bulach DM, Zuerner RL, Wilson P et al. Genome reduction in Leptospira borgpetersenii reflects limited transmission potential. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA103, 14560–14565 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picardeau M, Bulach DM, Bouchier C et al. Genome sequence of the saprophyte Leptospira biflexa provides insights into the evolution of Leptospira and the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. PLoS ONE3, e1607 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamberini M, Gomez RM, Atzingen MV et al. Whole-genome analysis of Leptospira interrogans to identify potential vaccine candidates against leptospirosis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.244, 305–313 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viratyosin W, Ingsriswang S, Pacharawongsakda E, Palittapongarnpim P. Genome-wide subcellular localization of putative outer membrane and extracellular proteins in Leptospira interrogans serovar Lai genome using bioinformatics approaches. BMC Genomics9, 181 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang HL, Zhu YZ, Qin JH et al.In silico and microarray-based genomic approaches to identifying potential vaccine candidates against Leptospira interrogans. BMC Genomics7, 293 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin JH, Sheng YY, Zhang ZM et al. Genome-wide transcriptional analysis of temperature shift in L. interrogans serovar Lai strain 56601. BMC Microbiol.6, 51 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo M, Bulach DM, Powell DR et al. Effects of temperature on gene expression patterns in Leptospira interrogans serovar Lai as assessed by whole-genome microarrays. Infect. Immun.74, 5848–5859 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsunaga J, Lo M, Bulach DM et al. Response of Leptospira interrogans to physiologic osmolarity: relevance in signaling the environment-to-host transition. Infect. Immun.75, 2864–2874 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patarakul K, Lo M, Adler B. Global transcriptomic response of Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni upon exposure to serum. BMC Microbiol.10, 31 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo M, Murray GL, Khoo CA, et al. Transcriptional response of Leptospira interrogans to iron limitation and characterization of a PerR homolog. Infect. Immun. DOI:10.1128/IAI.00435–00410 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Thongboonkerd V. Proteomics in leptospirosis research: towards molecular diagnostics and vaccine development. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn.8, 53–61 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ko AI, Goarant C, Picardeau M. Leptospira: the dawn of the molecular genetics era for an emerging zoonotic pathogen. Nat. Rev. Microbiol.7, 736–747 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourhy P, Louvel H, Saint Girons I, Pacardeau M. Random insertional mutagenesis of Leptospira interrogans, the agent of leptospirosis, using a mariner transposon. J. Bacteriol.187, 3255–3258 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray GL, Morel V, Cerqueira GM et al. Genome-wide transposon mutagenesis in pathogenic Leptospira species. Infect. Immun.77, 810–816 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berman SJ, Tsai CC, Holmes K, Fresh JW, Watten RH. Sporadic anicteric leptospirosis in South Vietnam. a study in 150 patients. Ann. Intern. Med.79, 167–173 (1973).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park SK, Lee SH, Rhee YK et al. Leptospirosis in Chonbuk Province of Korea in 1987: a Study of 93 Patients. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.41, 345–351 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards CN, Nicholson GD, Hassell TA, Everard CO, Callender J. Leptospirosis in Barbados. a clinical study. West Indian Med. J.39, 27–34 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kishaba T. Leptospirosis. In: Integrated Handbook of Internal Medicine Volume 28. Saito A, Shimada K (Eds). Nakayama-Shoten, Tokyo, Japan, 146–154 (1994) (In Japanese).
   Google Scholar
• Yersin C, Bovet P, Mérien F et al. Human leptospirosis in the Seychelles (Indian Ocean). A population-based study. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.59, 933–940 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz AR, Ansdell VE, Effler PV, Middleton CR, Sasaki DM. Assessment of the clinical presentation and treatment of 353 cases of laboratory-confirmed leptospirosis in Hawaii, 1974–1998. Clin. Infect. Dis.33, 1834–1841 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daher EF, Lima RS, Silva Júnior GB et al. Clinical presentation of leptospirosis: a retrospective study of 201 patients in a metropolitan city of Brazil. Braz. J. Infect. Dis.14, 3–10 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar