Current diagnosis and treatment of cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis

References

• Desjeux P. Leishmaniasis: current situation and new perspectives. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.27, 305–318 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz E, Hatz C, Blum J. New world cutaneous leishmaniasis in travelers. Lancet Infect. Dis.6, 342–349 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray HW, Berman JD, Davies CR, Saravia NG. Advances in leishmaniasis. Lancet366, 1561–1577 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw JJ, Lainson R. Ecology and epidemiology: New World. In: The Leishmaniases in Biology and Medicine (Volume I). Peters W, Killick-Kendrick R (Eds). Academic Press, London, UK, 291–363 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Ashford RW, Bettini S. Ecology and epidemiology: Old World. In: The Leishmaniases in Biology and Medicine (Volume I). Peters W, Killick-Kendrick R (Eds). Academic Press, London, UK, 365–424 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Lederman ER, Weld LH, Elyazar IR et al. Dermatologic conditions of the ill returned traveler: an analysis from the GeoSentinel Surveillance Network. Int. J. Infect. Dis.12, 593–602 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarisbrick JJ, Chiodini PL, Watson J et al. Clinical features and diagnosis of 42 travellers with cutaneous leishmaniasis. Travel Med. Infect. Dis.4, 14–21 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• El Hajj L, Thellier M, Carriere J, Bricaire F, Danis M, Caumes E. Localized cutaneous leishmaniasis imported into Paris: a review of 39 cases. Int. J. Dermatol.43, 120–125 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton BC. American cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. In: The Leishmaniases in Biology and Medicine (Volume II). Peters W, Killick-Kendrick R (Eds). Academic Press, London, UK, 637–664 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Machado P, Araujo C, Da Silva AT et al. Failure of early treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in preventing the development of an ulcer. Clin. Infect. Dis.34, E69–E73 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akilov OE, Khachemoune A, Hasan T. Clinical manifestations and classification of Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int. J. Dermatol.46, 132–142 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kharfi M, Fazaa B, Chaker E, Kamoun MR. [Mucosal localization of leishmaniasis in Tunisia: 5 cases]. Ann. Dermatol. Venereol.130, 27–30 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zijlstra EE, Musa AM, Khalil EA, el-Hassan IM, el-Hassan AM. Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Lancet Infect. Dis.3, 87–98 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveira-Neto MP, Mattos M, Souza CS, Fernandes O, Pirmez C. Leishmaniasis recidiva cutis in New World cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int. J. Dermatol.37, 846–849 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bittencourt AL, Costa JM, Carvalho EM, Barral A. Leishmaniasis recidiva cutis in American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int. J. Dermatol.32, 802–805 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calvopina M, Uezato H, Gomez EA, Korenaga M, Nonaka S, Hashiguchi Y. Leishmaniasis recidiva cutis due to Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis in subtropical Ecuador: isoenzymatic characterization. Int. J. Dermatol.45, 116–120 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reithinger R, Dujardin JC, Louzir H, Pirmez C, Alexander B, Brooker S. Cutaneous leishmaniasis. Lancet Infect. Dis.7, 581–596 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turetz ML, Machado PR, Ko AI et al. Disseminated leishmaniasis: a new and emerging form of leishmaniasis observed in northeastern Brazil. J. Infect. Dis.186, 1829–1834 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa JM, Marsden PD, Llanos-Cuentas EA et al. Disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis in a field clinic in Bahia, Brazil: a report of eight cases. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.89, 319–323 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barral A, Costa JM, Bittencourt AL, Barral-Netto M, Carvalho EM. Polar and subpolar diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis in Brazil: clinical and immunopathologic aspects. Int. J. Dermatol.34(7), 474–479 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Castro EA, Luz E, Telles FQ et al. Eco-epidemiological survey of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis American cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis in Ribeira Valley River, Parana State, Brazil. Acta Trop.93, 141–149 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gontijo CM, da Silva ES, de Fuccio MB et al. Epidemiological studies of an outbreak of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Rio Jequitinhonha Valley, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Acta Trop.81, 143–150 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones TC, Johnson WD Jr, Barretto AC et al. Epidemiology of American cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania braziliensis braziliensis. J. Infect. Dis.156, 73–83 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies CR, Reithinger R, Campbell-Lendrum D, Feliciangeli D, Borges R, Rodriguez N. The epidemiology and control of leishmaniasis in Andean countries. Cad. Saude Publica16, 925–950 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garcia AL, Parrado R, Rojas E, Delgado R, Dujardin JC, Reithinger R. Leishmaniases in Bolivia: comprehensive review and current status. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.80, 704–711 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashiguchi Y, Gomez Landires EA. A review of leishmaniasis in Ecuador. Bull. Pan. Am. Health Organ.25, 64–76 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Puig L, Pradinaud R. Leishmania and HIV co-infection: dermatological manifestations. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.97(Suppl. 1), 107–114 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindoso JA, Barbosa RN, Posada-Vergara MP et al. Unusual manifestations of tegumentary leishmaniasis in AIDS patients from the New World. Br. J. Dermatol.160, 311–318 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posada-Vergara MP, Lindoso JA, Tolezano JE, Pereira-Chioccola VL, Silva MV, Goto H. Tegumentary leishmaniasis as a manifestation of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in 2 patients with AIDS. J. Infect. Dis.192, 1819–1822 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David CV, Craft N. Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Dermatol. Ther.22, 491–502 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vega-Lopez F. Diagnosis of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis.16, 97–101 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Hucheimi SN, Sultan BA, Al-Dhalimi MA. A comparative study of the diagnosis of Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iraq by polymerase chain reaction and microbiologic and histopathologic methods. Int. J. Dermatol.48, 404–408 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sotto MN, Yamashiro-Kanashiro EH, da Matta VL, de Brito T. Cutaneous leishmaniasis of the New World: diagnostic immunopathology and antigen pathways in skin and mucosa. Acta Trop.46, 121–130 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schubach A, Cuzzi-Maya T, Oliveira AV et al. Leishmanial antigens in the diagnosis of active lesions and ancient scars of American tegumentary leishmaniasis patients. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz96, 987–996 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weigle KA, de Davalos M, Heredia P, Molineros R, Saravia NG, D’Alessandro A. Diagnosis of cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia: a comparison of seven methods. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.36, 489–496 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reithinger R, Dujardin JC. Molecular diagnosis of leishmaniasis: current status and future applications. J. Clin. Microbiol.45, 21–25 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimaldi G, McMahon-Pratt D. Monoclonal antibodies for the identification of New World Leishmania species. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz91, 37–42 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cupolillo E, Grimaldi G Jr, Momen H. Discrimination of Leishmania isolates using a limited set of enzymatic loci. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.89, 17–23 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Eys GJ, Schoone GJ, Kroon NC, Ebeling SB. Sequence analysis of small subunit ribosomal RNA genes and its use for detection and identification of Leishmania parasites. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol.51, 133–142 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell R, Iribar MP, Lambson B et al. Intra and inter-specific microsatellite variation in the Leishmania subgenus Viannia. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol.103, 71–77 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piarroux R, Azaiez R, Lossi AM et al. Isolation and characterization of a repetitive DNA sequence from Leishmania infantum: development of a visceral leishmaniasis polymerase chain reaction. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.49, 364–369 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luis L, Ramirez A, Aguilar CM, Eresh S, Barker DC, Mendoza-Leon A. The genomic fingerprinting of the coding region of the β-tubulin gene in Leishmania identification. Acta Trop.69, 193–204 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victoir K, Banuls AL, Arevalo J et al. The gp63 gene locus, a target for genetic characterization of Leishmania belonging to subgenus Viannia. Parasitology117(Pt 1), 1–13 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cupolillo E, Grimaldi Júnior G, Momen H, Beverley SM. Intergenic region typing (IRT): a rapid molecular approach to the characterization and evolution of Leishmania. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol.73, 145–155 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberger CL, Jaffe CL. Leishmania: identification of Old World species using a permissively primed intergenic polymorphic-polymerase chain reaction. Exp. Parasitol.91, 70–77 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Bruijn MH, Barker DC. Diagnosis of New World leishmaniasis: specific detection of species of the Leishmania braziliensis complex by amplification of kinetoplast DNA. Acta Trop.52, 45–58 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nasereddin A, Bensoussan-Hermano E, Schonian G, Baneth G, Jaffe CL. Molecular diagnosis of old world cutaneous leishmaniasis and species identification by use of a reverse line blot hybridization assay. J. Clin. Microbiol.46, 2848–2855 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveira JG, Novais FO, de Oliveira CI et al. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is highly sensitive for diagnosis of mucosal leishmaniasis. Acta Trop.94, 55–59 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castilho TM, Shaw JJ, Floeter-Winter LM. New PCR assay using glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase for identification of Leishmania species. J. Clin. Microbiol.41, 540–546 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang WW, Miranda-Verastegui C, Arevalo J et al. Development of a genetic assay to distinguish between Leishmania viannia species on the basis of isoenzyme differences. Clin. Infect. Dis.42, 801–809 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia L, Kindt A, Bermudez H et al. Culture-independent species typing of neotropical Leishmania for clinical validation of a PCR-based assay targeting heat shock protein 70 genes. J. Clin. Microbiol.42, 2294–2297 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marfurt J, Niederwieser I, Makia ND, Beck HP, Felger I. Diagnostic genotyping of Old and New World Leishmania species by PCR-RFLP. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.46, 115–124 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Monbrison F, Mihoubi I, Picot S. Real-time PCR assay for the identification of cutaneous Leishmania parasite species in Constantine region of Algeria. Acta Trop.102, 79–83 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antinori S, Calattini S, Piolini R et al. Is real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) more useful than a conventional PCR for the clinical management of leishmaniasis? Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.81, 46–51 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castilho TM, Camargo LM, McMahon-Pratt D, Shaw JJ, Floeter-Winter LM. A real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the identification and quantification of American Leishmania species on the basis of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.78, 122–132 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sassi A, Louzir H, Ben Salah A, Mokni M, Ben Osman A, Dellagi K. Leishmanin skin test lymphoproliferative responses and cytokine production after symptomatic or asymptomatic Leishmania major infection in Tunisia. Clin. Exp. Immunol.116, 127–132 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed SG. Diagnosis of leishmaniasis. Clin. Dermatol.24, 471–478 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw JJ, Lainson R. Leishmaniasis in Brazil: X. Some observations of intradermal reactions to different trypanosomatid antigens of patients suffering from cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.69, 323–335 (1975).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luz ZM, Silva AR, Silva Fde O, Caligiorne RB, Oliveira E, Rabello A. Lesion aspirate culture for the diagnosis and isolation of Leishmania spp. from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz104, 62–66 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reis Lde C, Brito ME, Almeida EL et al. Clinical, epidemiological and laboratory aspects of patients with American cutaneous leishmaniasis in the State of Pernambuco. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop.41, 439–443 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryceson AD. Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. 3. Immunological studies. IV. Pathogenesis of diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.64, 380–393 (1970).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kar K. Serodiagnosis of leishmaniasis. Crit. Rev. Microbiol.21, 123–152 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edrissian GH, Darabian P. A comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and indirect fluorescent antibody test in the sero-diagnosis of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis in Iran. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.73, 289–292 (1979).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• el Safi SH, Evans DA. A comparison of the direct agglutination test and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in the sero-diagnosis of leishmaniasis in the Sudan. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.83, 334–337 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeyrek FY, Korkmaz M, Ozbel Y. Serodiagnosis of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) caused by Leishmania tropica in Sanliurfa Province, Turkey, where ACL is highly endemic. Clin. Vaccine Immunol.14, 1409–1415 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guimaraes MC, Celeste BJ, Franco EL. Diagnostic performance indices for immunofluorescent tests and enzyme immunoassays of leishmaniasis sera from northern and north-eastern Brazil. Bull. World Health Organ.68, 39–43 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guimaraes MC, Celeste BJ, Franco EL, Cuce LC, Belda W Jr. Evaluation of serological diagnostic indices for mucocutaneous leishmaniasis: immunofluorescence tests and enzyme-linked immunoassays for IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies. Bull. World Health Organ.67, 643–648 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barroso-Freitas AP, Passos SR, Mouta-Confort E et al. Accuracy of an ELISA and indirect immunofluorescence for the laboratory diagnosis of American tegumentary leishmaniasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.103, 383–389 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero GA, de la Gloria Orge Orge M, de Farias Guerra MV, Paes MG, de Oliveira Macedo V, de Carvalho EM. Antibody response in patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis infected by Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis or Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis in Brazil. Acta Trop.93, 49–56 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hailu A. The use of direct agglutination test (DAT) in serological diagnosis of Ethiopian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.42, 251–256 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rey-Ladino JA, Joshi PB, Singh B, Gupta R, Reiner NE. Leishmania major: molecular cloning, sequencing, and expression of the heat shock protein 60 gene reveals unique carboxy terminal peptide sequences. Exp. Parasitol.85, 249–263 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amorim AG, Carrington M, Miles MA, Barker DC, de Almeida ML. Identification of the C-terminal region of 70 kDa heat shock protein from Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis as a target for the humoral immune response. Cell Stress Chaperones1, 177–187 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celeste BJ, Angel SO, Castro LG, Gidlund M, Goto H. Leishmania infantum heat shock protein 83 for the serodiagnosis of tegumentary leishmaniasis. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res.37, 1591–1593 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvar J, Aparicio P, Aseffa A et al. The relationship between leishmaniasis and AIDS: the second 10 years. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.21, 334–359 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boelaert M, El-Safi S, Hailu A et al. Diagnostic tests for kala-azar: a multi-centre study of the freeze-dried DAT, rK39 strip test and KAtex in East Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.102, 32–40 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahajan VK, Sharma NL. Therapeutic options for cutaneous leishmaniasis. J. Dermatolog. Treat.18, 97–104 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croft SL, Sundar S, Fairlamb AH. Drug resistance in leishmaniasis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.19, 111–126 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bermudez H, Rojas E, Garcia L et al. Generic sodium stibogluconate is as safe and effective as branded meglumine antimoniate, for the treatment of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Isiboro Secure Park, Bolivia. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.100, 591–600 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveira-Neto MP, Schubach A, Mattos M, Goncalves-Costa SC, Pirmez C. A low-dose antimony treatment in 159 patients with American cutaneous leishmaniasis: extensive follow-up studies (up to 10 years). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.57, 651–655 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palacios R, Osorio LE, Grajalew LF, Ochoa MT. Treatment failure in children in a randomized clinical trial with 10 and 20 days of meglumine antimonate for cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania viannia species. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.64, 187–193 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franke ED, Wignall FS, Cruz ME et al. Efficacy and toxicity of sodium stibogluconate for mucosal leishmaniasis. Ann. Intern. Med.113, 934–940 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero GA, Lessa HA, Orge MG, Macedo VO, Marsden PD. [Treatment of mucosal leishmaniasis with aminosidine sulfate: results of two year follow-up]. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop.31, 511–516 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amato VS, Tuon FF, Imamura R, Abegao de Camargo R, Duarte MI, Neto VA. Mucosal leishmaniasis: description of case management approaches and analysis of risk factors for treatment failure in a cohort of 140 patients in Brazil. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol.23, 1026–1034 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis M, Bernsen R, Ali-Zadeh H et al. A safety and feasibility study comparing intermittent high dose with daily standard dose liposomal amphotericin B for persistent neutropenic fever amphotericin B: spectrum and resistance. J. Med. Microbiol.49(Suppl. 1), 7–10 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Tuon FF, Amato VS, Graf ME et al. Treatment of New World cutaneous leishmaniasis – a systematic review with a meta-analysis. Int. J. Dermatol.47, 109–124 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soto J, Toledo J, Gutierrez P et al. Treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis with miltefosine, an oral agent. Clin. Infect. Dis.33, E57–E61 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soto J, Arana BA, Toledo J et al. Miltefosine for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin. Infect. Dis.38, 1266–1272 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khatami A, Firooz A, Gorouhi F, Dowlati Y. Treatment of acute Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis: a systematic review of the randomized controlled trials. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.57, 335e331–e329 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llanos-Cuentas A, Echevarria J, Seas C et al. Parenteral aminosidine is not effective for Peruvian mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.76, 1128–1131 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim DH, Chung HJ, Bleys J, Ghohestani RF. Is paromomycin an effective and safe treatment against cutaneous leishmaniasis? A meta-analysis of 14 randomized controlled trials. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.3, e381 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prata A, Silva-Vergara ML, Costa L et al. Efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop.36, 65–69 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Layegh P, Yazdanpanah MJ, Vosugh EM, Pezeshkpoor F, Shakeri MT, Moghiman T. Efficacy of azithromycin versus systemic meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime) in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.77, 99–101 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velez I, Agudelo S, Hendrickx E et al. Inefficacy of allopurinol as monotherapy for Colombian cutaneous leishmaniasis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med.126, 232–236 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llanos-Cuentas A, Echevarria J, Cruz M et al. Efficacy of sodium stibogluconate alone and in combination with allopurinol for treatment of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin. Infect. Dis.25, 677–684 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dogra J. A double-blind study on the efficacy of oral dapsone in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.85, 212–213 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osorio LE, Palacios R, Chica ME, Ochoa MT. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia with dapsone. Lancet351, 498–499 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joshi RK, Nambiar PM. Dermal leishmaniasis and rifampicin. Int. J. Dermatol.28, 612–614 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kochar DK, Saini G, Kochar SK et al. A double blind, randomised placebo controlled trial of rifampicin with omeprazole in the treatment of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. J. Vector Borne Dis.43, 161–167 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bygbjerg IC, Knudsen L, Kieffer M. Failure of rifampin therapy to cure cutaneous leishmaniais. Arch. Dermatol.116, 988 (1980).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Do Valle TZ, Oliveira Neto MP, Schubach A, Lagrange PH, Da Costa SC. New World tegumentar leishmaniasis: chemotherapeutic activity of rifampicin in humans and experimental murine model. Pathol. Biol. (Paris)43, 618–621 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• al-Gindan Y, Kubba R, el-Hassan AM, Omer AH, Kutty MK, Saeed MB. Dissemination in cutaneous leishmaniasis. 3. Lymph node involvement. Int. J. Dermatol.28, 248–254 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Snoek EM, Robinson DJ, van Hellemond JJ, Neumann HA. A review of photodynamic therapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol.22, 918–922 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaur S, Shivange AV, Roy N. Structural analysis of trypanosomal sirtuin: an insight for selective drug design. Mol. Divers.14(1), 169–178 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das BB, Sen N, Dasgupta SB, Ganguly A, Das R, Majumder HK. Topoisomerase research of kinetoplastid parasite Leishmania, with special reference to development of therapeutics. Indian J. Med. Res.123, 221–232 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desai PV, Patny A, Gut J et al. Identification of novel parasitic cysteine protease inhibitors by use of virtual screening. 2. The available chemical directory. J. Med. Chem.49, 1576–1584 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arruda DC, D’Alexandri FL, Katzin AM, Uliana SR. Antileishmanial activity of the terpene nerolidol. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.49, 1679–1687 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miguel DC, Yokoyama-Yasunaka JK, Uliana SR. Tamoxifen is effective in the treatment of Leishmania amazonensis infections in mice. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.2, e249 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miguel DC, Zauli-Nascimento RC, Yokoyama-Yasunaka JK, Katz S, Barbieri CL, Uliana SR. Tamoxifen as a potential antileishmanial agent: efficacy in the treatment of Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania chagasi infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.63, 365–368 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumari S, Kumar A, Samant M, Singh N, Dube A. Discovery of novel vaccine candidates and drug targets against visceral leishmaniasis using proteomics and transcriptomics. Curr. Drug Targets9, 938–947 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Convit J, Ulrich M, Zerpa O et al. Immunotherapy of american cutaneous leishmaniasis in Venezuela during the period 1990–99. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.97, 469–472 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayrink W, Magalhaes PA, Michalick MS et al. Immunotherapy as a treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis: preliminary studies in Brazil. Parassitologia34, 159–165 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coler RN, Goto Y, Bogatzki L, Raman V, Reed SG. Leish-111f, a recombinant polyprotein vaccine that protects against visceral Leishmaniasis by elicitation of CD4+ T cells. Infect. Immun.75, 4648–4654 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badaro R, Lobo I, Munos A et al. Immunotherapy for drug-refractory mucosal leishmaniasis. J. Infect. Dis.194, 1151–1159 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musa AM, Noazin S, Khalil EA, Modabber F. Immunological stimulation for the treatment of leishmaniasis: a modality worthy of serious consideration. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.104(1), 1–2 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bacellar O, Lessa H, Schriefer A et al. Up-regulation of Th1-type responses in mucosal leishmaniasis patients. Infect. Immun.70, 6734–6740 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carvalho LP, Passos S, Bacellar O et al. Differential immune regulation of activated T cells between cutaneous and mucosal leishmaniasis as a model for pathogenesis. Parasite Immunol.29, 251–258 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machado PR, Lessa H, Lessa M et al. Oral pentoxifylline combined with pentavalent antimony: a randomized trial for mucosal leishmaniasis. Clin. Infect. Dis.44, 788–793 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadeghian G, Nilforoushzadeh MA. Effect of combination therapy with systemic glucantime and pentoxifylline in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int. J. Dermatol.45, 819–821 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arevalo I, Ward B, Miller R et al. Successful treatment of drug-resistant cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans by use of imiquimod, an immunomodulator. Clin. Infect. Dis.33, 1847–1851 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arevalo I, Tulliano G, Quispe A et al. Role of imiquimod and parenteral meglumine antimoniate in the initial treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin. Infect. Dis.44, 1549–1554 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miranda-Verastegui C, Tulliano G, Gyorkos TW et al. First-line therapy for human cutaneous leishmaniasis in Peru using the TLR7 agonist imiquimod in combination with pentavalent antimony. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.3(7), e491 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez U, Pinart M, Reveiz L, Alvar J. Interventions for Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.CD005067 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez U, Pinart M, Rengifo-Pardo M, Macaya A, Alvar J, Tweed JA. Interventions for American cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.CD004834 (2009).
   Google Scholar