1,881
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW

Personalized Type 2 Diabetes Management: An Update on Recent Advances and Recommendations

ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 281-295 | Published online: 04 Feb 2022

References

  • Hoerger TJ, Zhang P, Segel JE, et al. Improvements in risk factor control among persons with diabetes in the United States: evidence and implications for remaining life expectancy. Diabetes Res Clin Pr. 2009;86:225–232. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2009.09.017
  • Wang J, Geiss LS, Cheng YLJ, et al. Long-term and recent progress in blood pressure levels among us adults with diagnosed diabetes, 1988–2008. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:1579–1581. doi:10.2337/dc11-0178
  • Inzucchi SE, Bergenstal RM, Buse JB, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a patient-centered approach. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(6):1364–1379. doi:10.2337/dc12-0413
  • Grant RW, Wexler DJ. Personalized medicine in Type 2 diabetes: what does the future hold? Diabetes Manag (Lond). 2012;2:199–204. doi:10.2217/dmt.12.15
  • Kerr EA, Heisler M, Krein SL, et al. Beyond comorbidity counts: how do comorbidity type and severity influence diabetes patients’ treatment priorities and self-management? J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22:1635–1640. doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0313-2
  • Gillman MW, Hammond RA. Precision treatment and precision prevention integrating “Below and Above the Skin”. JAMA Pediatr. 2016;170:9–10. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.2786
  • Pinto LC, Rados DV, Remonti LR, et al. Patient-centered management of type 2 diabetes mellitus based on specific clinical scenarios: systematic review, meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. J Clin Endocr Metab. 2020;105:3588–3599. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa534
  • Boels AM, Hart HE, Rutten GE, Vos RC. Personalised treatment targets in type 2 diabetes patients: the Dutch approach. Prim Care Diabetes. 2017;11:71–77. doi:10.1016/j.pcd.2016.08.001
  • Porte D, Kahn SE. The key role of islet dysfunction in type-II diabetes-mellitus. Clin Invest Med. 1995;18:247–254.
  • Inzucchi SE. Oral antihyperglycemic therapy for type 2 diabetes - Scientific review. JAMA-J Am Med Assoc. 2002;287:360–372. doi:10.1001/jama.287.3.360
  • Gastaldelli A, Ferrannini E, Miyazaki Y, Matsuda M, DeFronzo RA. Beta-cell dysfunction and glucose intolerance: results from the San Antonio metabolism (SAM) study. Diabetologia. 2004;47:31–39. doi:10.1007/s00125-003-1263-9
  • Del Prato S, Marchetti P. Beta- and alpha-cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes. Horm Metab Res. 2004;36:775–781. doi:10.1055/s-2004-826163
  • Bailey CJ, Day C. Avandamet: combined metformin-rosiglitazone treatment for insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes. Int J Clin Pract. 2004;58:867–876. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2004.00318.x
  • Sheleme T, Mamo G, Melaku T, Sahilu T. Prevalence, patterns and predictors of chronic complications of diabetes mellitus at a large referral hospital in Ethiopia: a prospective observational study. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;13:4909–4918. doi:10.2147/DMSO.S281992
  • Arambewela MH, Somasundaram NP, Jayasekara HBPR, et al. Prevalence of chronic complications, their risk factors, and the cardiovascular risk factors among patients with type 2 diabetes attending the diabetic clinic at a tertiary care hospital in Sri Lanka. J Diabetes Res. 2018;2018:1–10. doi:10.1155/2018/4504287
  • Schwartz SS, Epstein S, Corkey BE, et al. The time is right for a new classification system for diabetes: rationale and implications of the beta-cell-centric classification schema. Diabetes Care. 2016;39:179–186. doi:10.2337/dc15-1585
  • American Diabetes Association. 9. Pharmacologic approaches to glycemic treatment: standards of medical care in diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44:S111–S24. doi:10.2337/dc21-S009
  • Wong J, Molyneaux L, Constantino M, Twigg SM, Yue DK. Timing is everything: age of onset influences long-term retinopathy risk in type 2 diabetes, independent of traditional risk factors. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:1985–1990. doi:10.2337/dc08-0580
  • Hillier TA, Pedula KL. Complications in young adults with early-onset type 2 diabetes - Losing the relative protection of youth. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:2999–3005. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.11.2999
  • Ahlqvist E, Storm P, Karajamaki A, et al. Novel subgroups of adult-onset diabetes and their association with outcomes: a data-driven cluster analysis of six variables. Lancet Diabetes Endo. 2018;6:361–369. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30051-2
  • Ahlqvist E, Prasad RB, Groop L. Subtypes of type 2 diabetes determined from clinical parameters. Diabetes. 2020;69(10):2086–2093. doi:10.2337/dbi20-0001
  • Misra A, Sattar N, Tandon N, et al. Clinical management of type 2 diabetes in South Asia. Lancet Diabetes Endo. 2018;6:979–991. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30199-2
  • Shrivastava U, Misra A. Need for ethnic-specific guidelines for prevention, diagnosis, and management of type 2 diabetes in South Asians. Diabetes Technol The. 2015;17:435–439. doi:10.1089/dia.2014.0213
  • Chan JCN, Yeung R, Luk A. The Asian diabetes phenotypes: challenges and opportunities. Diabetes Res Clin Pr. 2014;105:135–139. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2014.05.011
  • Lim LL, Tan ATB, Moses K, Rajadhyaksha V, Chan SP. Place of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors in East Asian subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus: insights into the management of Asian phenotype. J Diabetes Complicat. 2017;31:494–503. doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2016.10.008
  • Kautzky-Willer A, Harreiter J, Pacini G. Sex and gender differences in risk, pathophysiology and complications of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Endocr Rev. 2016;37:278–316. doi:10.1210/er.2015-1137
  • Kautzky-Willer A, Harreiter J. Sex and gender differences in therapy of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pr. 2017;131:230–241. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2017.07.012
  • Polonsky WH, Henry RR. Poor medication adherence in type 2 diabetes: recognizing the scope of the problem and its key contributors. Patient Prefer Adher. 2016;10:1299–1307. doi:10.2147/PPA.S106821
  • American Diabetes Association. 6. Glycemic targets: standards of medical care in diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44:S73–S84. doi:10.2337/dc21-S006
  • Davies MJ, D’Alessio DA, Fradkin J, et al. Management of hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes, 2018. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetologia. 2018;61:2461–2498. doi:10.1007/s00125-018-4729-5
  • Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. New Engl J Med. 2007;356:2457–2471. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa072761
  • Andreasen CR, Andersen A, Knop FK, Vilsboll T. Understanding the place for GLP-1RA therapy: translating guidelines for treatment of type 2 diabetes into everyday clinical practice and patient selection. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2021;23:40–52. doi:10.1111/dom.14500
  • Li CX, Liang S, Gao LY, Liu H. Cardiovascular outcomes associated with SGLT-2 inhibitors versus other glucose-lowering drugs in patients with type 2 diabetes: a real-world systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2021;16:e0244689.
  • Gerstein HC, Sattar N, Rosenstock J, et al. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with efpeglenatide in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2021;385:896–907. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2108269
  • Williams R, de Vries F, Kothny W, et al. Cardiovascular safety of vildagliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes: a European multi-database, non-interventional post-authorization safety study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19:1473–1478. doi:10.1111/dom.12951
  • White WB, Cannon CP, Heller SR, et al. Alogliptin after acute coronary syndrome in patients with type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2013;369:1327–1335. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1305889
  • Scirica BM, Bhatt DL, Braunwald E, et al. Saxagliptin and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. New Engl J Med. 2013;369:1317–1326. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1307684
  • Green JB, Bethel MA, Armstrong PW, et al. Effect of sitagliptin on cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2015;373:232–242.
  • Rosenstock J, Perkovic V, Johansen OE, et al. Effect of linagliptin vs placebo on major cardiovascular events in adults with type 2 diabetes and high cardiovascular and renal risk the CARMELINA Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA-J Am Med Assoc. 2019;321:69–79. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.18269
  • Neal B, Perkovic V, Matthews DR. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes reply. New Engl J Med. 2017;377:2099. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1611925
  • Wiviott SD, Raz I, Sabatine MS. Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes reply. New Engl J Med. 2019;380:1881–1882. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1812389
  • McMurray JJV, Solomon SD, Inzucchi SE, et al. Dapagliflozin in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction. New Engl J Med. 2019;381:1995–2008. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1911303
  • Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, et al. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2015;373:2117–2128. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1504720
  • Packer M, Anker SD, Butler J, et al. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with empagliflozin in heart failure. New Engl J Med. 2020;383:1413–1424. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2022190
  • Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, et al. Empagliflozin in heart failure with a preserved ejection fraction. New Engl J Med. 2021;385:1451–1461. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2107038
  • Cannon CP, Pratley R, Dagogo-Jack S, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes with ertugliflozin in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2020;383:1425–1435. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2004967
  • Gerstein HC, Colhoun HM, Dagenais GR, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND): a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2019;394:121–130. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31149-3
  • Holman RR, Bethel MA, Mentz RJ, et al. Effects of once-weekly exenatide on cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2017;377:1228–1239. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1612917
  • Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2016;375:311–322. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1603827
  • Pfeffer MA, Claggett B, Diaz R, et al. Lixisenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute coronary syndrome. New Engl J Med. 2015;373:2247–2257. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1509225
  • Marso SP, Bain SC, Consoli A, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2016;375:1834–1844. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1607141
  • Husain M, Birkenfeld AL, Donsmark M, et al. Oral semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2019;381:841–851. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1901118
  • Han YC, Xie HZ, Liu YT, et al. Effect of metformin on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in patients with coronary artery diseases: a systematic review and an updated meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2019;18. doi:10.1186/s12933-019-0900-7
  • Bain S, Druyts E, Balijepalli C, et al. Cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality associated with sulphonylureas compared with other antihyperglycaemic drugs: a Bayesian meta-analysis of survival data. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19:329–335. doi:10.1111/dom.12821
  • Rosenstock J, Kahn SE, Johansen OE. Effect of linagliptin vs glimepiride on major adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes: the CAROLINA Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA-J Am Med Assoc. 2019;322:2138. doi:10.1001/jama.2019.13772
  • Liao HW, Saver JL, Wu YL, et al. Pioglitazone and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with insulin resistance, pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2017;7:e013927. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013927
  • Gerstein HC, Bosch J, Dagenais GR, et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. New Engl J Med. 2012;367:319–328.
  • Mannucci E, Ferrannini E. Cardiovascular safety of insulin: between real-world data and reality. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19:1201–1204. doi:10.1111/dom.12967
  • Marso SP, McGuire DK, Zinman B, et al. Efficacy and safety of degludec versus glargine in type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med. 2017;377:723–732. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1615692
  • Solomon SD, de Boer RA, DeMets D, et al. Dapagliflozin in heart failure with preserved and mildly reduced ejection fraction: rationale and design of the DELIVER trial. Eur J Heart Fail. 2021;23:1217–1225. doi:10.1002/ejhf.2249
  • Williams DM, Nawaz A, Evans M. Renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes: a review of cardiovascular and renal outcome trials. Diabetes Ther. 2020;11:369–386. doi:10.1007/s13300-019-00747-3
  • de Bhailis A, Azmi S, Kalra PA. Diabetic kidney disease: update on clinical management and non-glycaemic effects of newer medications for type 2 diabetes. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab. 2021;12::20420188211020664. doi:10.1177/20420188211020664
  • Perkovic V, Jardine MJ, Neal B, et al. Canagliflozin and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. New Engl J Med. 2019;380:2295–2306. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811744
  • Heerspink HJL, Stefansson BV, Correa-Rotter R, et al. Dapagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease. New Engl J Med. 2020;383:1436–1446. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2024816
  • Yin WL, Bain SC, Min TZ. The effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Ther. 2020;11:835–844. doi:10.1007/s13300-020-00798-x
  • Williams DM, Nawaz A, Evans M. Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors: are they all the same? A narrative review of cardiovascular outcome trials. Diabetes Ther. 2021;12:55–70. doi:10.1007/s13300-020-00951-6
  • Triozzi JL, Gregg LP, Virani SS, Navaneethan SD. Management of type 2 diabetes in chronic kidney disease. BMJ Open Diab Res Ca. 2021;9:e002300.
  • Vincent RK, Williams DM, Evans M. A look to the future in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: are glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues or sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors the answer? Diabetes Obes Metab. 2020;22:2227–2240. doi:10.1111/dom.14196
  • Cusi K, Orsak B, Bril F, et al. Long-term pioglitazone treatment for patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and prediabetes or type 2 diabetes mellitus A Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165:305-+. doi:10.7326/M15-1774
  • Lian JX, Fu JF. Pioglitazone for NAFLD patients with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. Front Endocrinol. 2021;12. doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.615409
  • Newsome PN, Buchholtz K, Cusi K, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of subcutaneous semaglutide in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. New Engl J Med. 2021;384:1113–1124. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2028395
  • Kuchay MS, Krishan S, Mishra SK, et al. Effect of dulaglutide on liver fat in patients with type 2 diabetes and NAFLD: randomised controlled trial (D-LIFT trial). Diabetologia. 2020;63:2434–2445. doi:10.1007/s00125-020-05265-7
  • Daousi C, Casson IF, Gill GV, et al. Prevalence of obesity in type 2 diabetes in secondary care: association with cardiovascular risk factors. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82:280–284. doi:10.1136/pmj.2005.039032
  • Afshin A, Forouzanfar MH, Reitsma MB, et al. Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries over 25 years. New Engl J Med. 2017;377:13–27.
  • Apovian CM, Okemah J, O’Neil PM. Body weight considerations in the management of type 2 diabetes. Adv Ther. 2019;36:44–58. doi:10.1007/s12325-018-0824-8
  • Williams DM, Nawaz A, Evans M. Drug therapy in obesity: a review of current and emerging treatments. Diabetes Ther. 2020;11:1199–1216. doi:10.1007/s13300-020-00816-y
  • Pi-Sunyer X, Astrup A, Fujioka K, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of 3.0 mg of liraglutide in weight management. New Engl J Med. 2015;373:11–22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1411892
  • Wilding JPH, Batterham RL, Calanna S, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity. New Engl J Med. 2021;384:989–1002. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2032183
  • Ludvik B, Giorgino F, Jodar E, et al. Once-weekly tirzepatide versus once-daily insulin degludec as add-on to metformin with or without SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with type 2 diabetes (SURPASS-3): a randomised, open-label, parallel-group, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2021;398:583–598. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01443-4
  • Frias JP, Nauck MA, Van J, et al. Efficacy and safety of LY3298176, a novel dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist, in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, placebo-controlled and active comparator-controlled Phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2018;392:2180–2193. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32260-8
  • Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. New Engl J Med. 2002;346:393–403.
  • Gallwitz B. Clinical Use of DPP-4 Inhibitors. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10. doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00389
  • van Dieren S, Czernichow S, Chalmers J, et al. Weight changes and their predictors amongst 11 140 patients with type 2 diabetes in the ADVANCE trial. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2012;14:464–469. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2012.01556.x
  • Koliaki C, Liatis S, Le Roux CW, Kokkinos A. The role of bariatric surgery to treat diabetes: current challenges and perspectives. BMC Endocr Disord. 2017;17. doi:10.1186/s12902-017-0202-6
  • Colosia AD, Palencia R, Khan S. Prevalence of hypertension and obesity in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in observational studies: a systematic literature review. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2013;17:327–338. doi:10.2147/DMSO.S51325
  • Zhang XD, Zhao QY. Effects of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors on blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2016;34:167–175. doi:10.1097/HJH.0000000000000782
  • Georgianos PI, Agarwal R. Ambulatory blood pressure reduction with SGLT-2 inhibitors: dose-response meta-analysis and comparative evaluation with low-dose hydrochlorothiazide. Diabetes Care. 2019;42:693–700. doi:10.2337/dc18-2207
  • Roumie CL, Liu XL, Choma NN, et al. Initiation of sulfonylureas versus metformin is associated with higher blood pressure at one year. Pharmacoepidem Dr S. 2012;21:515–523. doi:10.1002/pds.3249
  • Snorgaard O, Kober L, Carlsen J. The effect of metformin on blood pressure and metabolism in nondiabetic hypertensive patients. J Intern Med. 1997;242:407–412. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.00236.x
  • Karagiannis T, Avgerinos I, Toumpalidou M, et al. Patients’ and clinicians’ preferences on outcomes and medication attributes for type 2 diabetes: a mixed-methods study. J Gen Intern Med. 2020. doi:10.1007/s11606-019-05608-0
  • Longo M, Bellastella G, Maiorino MI, et al. Diabetes and aging: from treatment goals to pharmacologic therapy. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10. doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00045
  • Hayashino Y, Izumi K, Okamura S, et al. Duration of diabetes and types of diabetes therapy in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: the Japan diabetes complication and its prevention prospective study 3 (JDCP study 3). J Diabetes Invest. 2017;8:243–249. doi:10.1111/jdi.12550
  • Martín-Timón I, Del Cañizo-Gómez FJ. Mechanisms of hypoglycemia unawareness and implications in diabetic patients. World J Diabetes. 2015;6:912–926. doi:10.4239/wjd.v6.i7.912
  • Schopman JE, Geddes J, Frier BM. Prevalence of impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia and frequency of hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pr. 2010;87:64–68. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.013
  • Ducat L, Philipson LH, Anderson BJ. The mental health comorbidities of diabetes. JAMA-J Am Med Assoc. 2014;312:691–692. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.8040
  • Kruger DF, Larue S, Estepa P. Recognition of and steps to mitigate anxiety and fear of pain in injectable diabetes treatment. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2015;8:49–56. doi:10.2147/DMSO.S71923
  • Zhou KX, Pedersen HK, Dawed AY, Pearson ER. Pharmacogenomics in diabetes mellitus: insights into drug action and drug discovery. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2016;12:337–346. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2016.51
  • Hattersley AT, Patel KA. Precision diabetes: learning from monogenic diabetes. Diabetologia. 2017;60:769–777. doi:10.1007/s00125-017-4226-2
  • Riddle MC, Philipson LH, Rich SS, et al. Monogenic diabetes: from genetic insights to population-based precision in care. reflections from a diabetes care editors’ expert forum. Diabetes Care. 2020;43:3117–3128. doi:10.2337/dci20-0065
  • Carmody D, Naylor RN, Bell CD, et al. GCK-MODY in the US National Monogenic Diabetes Registry: frequently misdiagnosed and unnecessarily treated. Acta Diabetol. 2016;53:703–708. doi:10.1007/s00592-016-0859-8
  • Mahajan A, Taliun D, Thurner M, et al. Fine-mapping type 2 diabetes loci to single-variant resolution using high-density imputation and islet-specific epigenome maps. Nat Genet. 2018;50:1505. doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0241-6
  • Meigs JB. The genetic epidemiology of type 2 diabetes: opportunities for health translation. Curr Diabetes Rep. 2019;19. doi:10.1007/s11892-019-1173-y
  • Udler MS, McCarthy MI, Florez JC, Mahajan A. Genetic risk scores for diabetes diagnosis and precision medicine. Endocr Rev. 2019;40:1500–1520. doi:10.1210/er.2019-00088
  • Li JEH, Szczerbinski L, Dawed AY, et al. A polygenic score for type 2 diabetes risk is associated with both the acute and sustained response to sulfonylureas. Diabetes. 2021;70:293–300. doi:10.2337/db20-0530
  • Leighton E, Sainsbury CAR, Jones GC. A practical review of C-Peptide testing in diabetes. Diabetes Ther. 2017;8:475–487. doi:10.1007/s13300-017-0265-4
  • Kumar S, Subhakumari KN. Role of anti-GAD, anti-IA2 antibodies and C-peptide in differentiating latent autoimmune diabetes in adults from type 2 diabetes mellitus. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2016;36:313–319. doi:10.1007/s13410-015-0451-8
  • Laakso M. Biomarkers for type 2 diabetes. Mol Metab. 2019;27:S139–S46. doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2019.06.016