212
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Sleep-disordered breathing and comorbidities: role of the upper airway and craniofacial skeleton

, &
Pages 907-936 | Published online: 09 Nov 2020

References

  • Hendricks JC, Kovalski RJ, Kline LR. Phasic respiratory muscle patterns and sleep-disordered breathing during rapid eye movement sleep in the English bulldog. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991;144(5):1112–1120. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/144.5.1112
  • Sproson EL, Hogan AM, Hill CM. Accuracy of clinical assessment of paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea in two English centres. J Laryngol Otol. 2009;123(9):1002–1009. doi:10.1017/S0022215109005532
  • Hamada M, Iida M. Home monitoring using portable polygraphy for perioperative assessment of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Tokai J Exp Clin Med. 2012;37(3):66–70.
  • Brouillette RT, Morielli A, Leimanis A, Waters KA, Luciano R, Ducharme FM. Nocturnal pulse oximetry as an abbreviated testing modality for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatrics. 2000;105(2):405–412.
  • Hill CM, Elphick HE, Farquhar M, et al. Home oximetry to screen for obstructive sleep apnoea in down syndrome. Arch Dis Child. 2018;103(10):962–967. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2017-314409
  • Iber C, Redline S, Kaplan Gilpin AM, et al. Polysomnography performed in the unattended home versus the attended laboratory setting–Sleep Heart Health Study methodology. Sleep. 2004;27(3):536–540.
  • Berry RB, Budhiraja R, Gottlieb DJ, et al. Rules for scoring respiratory events in sleep: update of the 2007 AASM manual for the scoring of sleep and associated events. deliberations of the sleep apnea definitions task force of the American academy of sleep medicine. J Clin Sleep Med. 2012;8(5):597–619. doi:10.5664/jcsm.2172
  • Berry RB, Brooks R, Gamaldo C, et al. AASM scoring manual updates for 2017 (version 2.4). J Clin Sleep Med. 2017;13(5):665–666. doi:10.5664/jcsm.6576
  • Terrill PI, Dakin C, Hughes I, Yuill M, Parsley C. Nocturnal oxygen saturation profiles of healthy term infants. Arch Dis Child. 2015;100(1):18–23. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2013-305708
  • Evans HJ, Karunatilleke AS, Grantham-Hill S, Gavlak JC. A cohort study reporting normal oximetry values in healthy infants under 4 months of age using Masimo technology. Arch Dis Child. 2018;103(9):868–872. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2017-314361
  • Marcus CL, Brooks LJ, Draper KA, et al. Diagnosis and management of childhood obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics. 2012;130(3):e714–e755. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1672
  • Nixon GM, Hyde M, Biggs SN, Walter LM, Horne RS, Davey MJ. The impact of recent changes to the respiratory scoring rules in pediatrics. J Clin Sleep Med. 2014;10(11):1217–1221. doi:10.5664/jcsm.4206
  • Mitterling T, Hogl B, Schonwald SV, et al. Sleep and respiration in 100 healthy caucasian sleepers – a polysomnographic study according to American Academy of Sleep Medicine standards. Sleep. 2015;38(6):867–875. doi:10.5665/sleep.4730
  • Hertenstein E, Gabryelska A, Spiegelhalder K, et al. Reference data for polysomnography-measured and subjective sleep in healthy adults. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(4):523–532. doi:10.5664/jcsm.7036
  • Terrill PI, Dakin C, Edwards BA, Wilson SJ, MacLean JE. A graphical method for comparing nocturnal oxygen saturation profiles in individuals and populations: application to healthy infants and preterm neonates. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2018;53(5):645–655. doi:10.1002/ppul.23987
  • Vold ML, Aasebo U, Hjalmarsen A, Melbye H. Predictors of oxygen saturation </=95% in a cross-sectional population based survey. Respir Med. 2012;106(11):1551–1558. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2012.06.016
  • Vold ML, Aasebo U, Wilsgaard T, Melbye H. Low oxygen saturation and mortality in an adult cohort: the Tromso study. BMC Pulm Med. 2015;15:9. doi:10.1186/s12890-015-0003-5
  • Gries RE, Brooks LJ. Normal oxyhemoglobin saturation during sleep. How low does it go? Chest. 1996;110(6):1489–1492.
  • Ferber R, Kryger MH. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine in the Child. 1st ed. WB Saunders (PA):Elsevier Health Sciences; 1995.
  • Kobayashi M, Fukuda S, Takano KI, Kamizono J, Ichikawa K. Can a pulse oxygen saturation of 95% to 96% help predict further vital sign destabilization in school-aged children?: a retrospective observational study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018;97(25):e11135. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000011135
  • Urschitz MS, Wolff J, Von EV, Urschitz-Duprat PM, Schlaud M, Poets CF. Reference values for nocturnal home pulse oximetry during sleep in primary school children. Chest. 2003;123(1):96–101.
  • Uliel S, Tauman R, Greenfeld M, Sivan Y. Normal polysomnographic respiratory values in children and adolescents. Chest. 2004;125(3):872–878.
  • Traeger N, Schultz B, Pollock AN, Mason T, Marcus CL, Arens R. Polysomnographic values in children 2-9 years old: additional data and review of the literature. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2005;40(1):22–30. doi:10.1002/ppul.20236
  • Verhulst SL, Schrauwen N, Haentjens D, Van GL, De Backer WA, Desager KN. Reference values for sleep-related respiratory variables in asymptomatic European children and adolescents. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2007;42(2):159–167. doi:10.1002/ppul.20551
  • Moss D, Urschitz MS, von BA, et al. Reference values for nocturnal home polysomnography in primary schoolchildren. Pediatr Res. 2005;58(5):958–965. doi:10.1203/01.PDR.0000181372.34213.13
  • Accardo JA, Marcus CL, Leonard MB, Shults J, Meltzer LJ, Elia J. Associations between psychiatric comorbidities and sleep disturbances in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2012;33(2):97–105. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e31823f6853
  • Marcus CL. Sleep-disordered breathing in children. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2000;12(3):208–212.
  • Block AJ, Boysen PG, Wynne JW, Hunt LA. Sleep apnea, hypopnea and oxygen desaturation in normal subjects. A strong male predominance. N Engl J Med. 1979;300(10):513–517. doi:10.1056/NEJM197903083001001
  • Garvey JF, Pengo MF, Drakatos P, Kent BD. Epidemiological aspects of obstructive sleep apnea. J Thorac Dis. 2015;7(5):920–929. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.04.52
  • Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Neurocognitive and behavioral morbidity in children with sleep disorders. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2007;13(6):505–509. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3282ef6880
  • Lee W, Nagubadi S, Kryger MH, Mokhlesi B. Epidemiology of obstructive sleep apnea: a population-based perspective. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2008;2(3):349–364. doi:10.1586/17476348.2.3.349
  • Punjabi NM. The epidemiology of adult obstructive sleep apnea. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008;5(2):136–143. doi:10.1513/pats.200709-155MG
  • Peppard PE, Young T, Barnet JH, Palta M, Hagen EW, Hla KM. Increased prevalence of sleep-disordered breathing in adults. Am J Epidemiol. 2013;177(9):1006–1014. doi:10.1093/aje/kws342
  • Franklin KA, Lindberg E. Obstructive sleep apnea is a common disorder in the population-a review on the epidemiology of sleep apnea. J Thorac Dis. 2015;7(8):1311–1322. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.06.11
  • Senaratna CV, English DR, Currier D, et al. Sleep apnoea in Australian men: disease burden, co-morbidities, and correlates from the Australian longitudinal study on male health. BMC Public Health. 2016;16(Suppl 3):1029. doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3703-8
  • Redline S, Tishler PV, Schluchter M, Aylor J, Clark K, Graham G. Risk factors for sleep-disordered breathing in children. Associations with obesity, race, and respiratory problems. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159(5 Pt 1):1527–1532. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.159.5.9809079
  • Rosen CL, Larkin EK, Kirchner HL, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for sleep-disordered breathing in 8- to 11-year-old children: association with race and prematurity. J Pediatr. 2003;142(4):383–389. doi:10.1067/mpd.2003.28
  • Lumeng JC, Chervin RD. Epidemiology of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008;5(2):242–252. doi:10.1513/pats.200708-135MG
  • Bixler EO, Vgontzas AN, Lin HM, et al. Sleep disordered breathing in children in a general population sample: prevalence and risk factors. Sleep. 2009;32(6):731–736.
  • Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Obesity, asthma, and sleep-disordered breathing. J Pediatr. 2012;160(5):713–714. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2011.11.036
  • Montgomery-Downs HE, O’Brien LM, Gulliver TE, Gozal D. Polysomnographic characteristics in normal preschool and early school-aged children. Pediatrics. 2006;117(3):741–753. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1067
  • Scholle S, Wiater A, Scholle HC. Normative values of polysomnographic parameters in childhood and adolescence: cardiorespiratory parameters. Sleep Med. 2011;12(10):988–996. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2011.05.006
  • Scholle S, Beyer U, Bernhard M, et al. Normative values of polysomnographic parameters in childhood and adolescence: quantitative sleep parameters. Sleep Med. 2011;12(6):542–549. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2010.11.011
  • Scholle S, Wiater A, Scholle HC. Normative values of polysomnographic parameters in childhood and adolescence: arousal events. Sleep Med. 2012;13(3):243–251. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2011.07.022
  • Gozal D, Capdevila OS, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Metabolic alterations and systemic inflammation in obstructive sleep apnea among nonobese and obese prepubertal children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177(10):1142–1149. doi:10.1164/rccm.200711-1670OC
  • Tom C, Roy B, Vig R, et al. Correlations between waist and neck circumferences and obstructive sleep apnea characteristics. Sleep Vigil. 2018;2(2):111–118. doi:10.1007/s41782-018-0041-1
  • Arens R, McDonough JM, Costarino AT, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the upper airway structure of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164(4):698–703. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.164.4.2101127
  • Arens R, McDonough JM, Corbin AM, et al. Upper airway size analysis by magnetic resonance imaging of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167(1):65–70. doi:10.1164/rccm.200206-613OC
  • Arens R, Sin S, Nandalike K, et al. Upper airway structure and body fat composition in obese children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183(6):782–787. doi:10.1164/rccm.201008-1249OC
  • Strauss T, Sin S, Marcus CL, et al. Upper airway lymphoid tissue size in children with sickle cell disease. Chest. 2012;142(1):94–100. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2013
  • Schwab RJ, Pasirstein M, Pierson R, et al. Identification of upper airway anatomic risk factors for obstructive sleep apnea with volumetric magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168(5):522–530. doi:10.1164/rccm.200208-866OC
  • Fujioka M, Young LW, Girdany BR. Radiographic evaluation of adenoidal size in children: adenoidal-nasopharyngeal ratio. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1979;133(3):401–404. doi:10.2214/ajr.133.3.401
  • Jeans WD, Fernando DC, Maw AR, Leighton BC. A longitudinal study of the growth of the nasopharynx and its contents in normal children. Br J Radiol. 1981;54(638):117–121. doi:10.1259/0007-1285-54-638-117
  • Haapaniemi JJ. Adenoids in school-aged children. J Laryngol Otol. 1995;109(3):196–202.
  • Springer C, Cooper DM, Wasserman K. Evidence that maturation of the peripheral chemoreceptors is not complete in childhood. Respir Physiol. 1988;74(1):55–64.
  • Gozal D, Arens R, Omlin KJ, Marcus CL, Keens TG. Maturational differences in step vs. ramp hypoxic and hypercapnic ventilatory responses. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1994;76(5):1968–1975. doi:10.1152/jappl.1994.76.5.1968
  • Marcus CL, Gozal D, Arens R, et al. Ventilatory responses during wakefulness in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149(3 Pt 1):715–721. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.149.3.8118641
  • Isono S, Tanaka A, Ishikawa T, Nishino T. Developmental changes in collapsibility of the passive pharynx during infancy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(3 Pt 1):832–836. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.3.9911089
  • Marcus CL, Lutz J, Hamer A, Smith PL, Schwartz A. Developmental changes in response to subatmospheric pressure loading of the upper airway. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87(2):626–633. doi:10.1152/jappl.1999.87.2.626
  • Marcus CL, Moreira GA, Bamford O, Lutz J. Response to inspiratory resistive loading during sleep in normal children and children with obstructive apnea. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999;87(4):1448–1454. doi:10.1152/jappl.1999.87.4.1448
  • Gileles-Hillel A, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Hemoglobinopathies and sleep–the road less traveled. Sleep Med Rev. 2015;24:57–70. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2015.01.002
  • Rosen CL, DeBaun MR, Strunk RC, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and sickle cell anemia. Pediatrics. 2014;134(2):273–281. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-4223
  • Sritippayawan S, Norasetthekul S, Nuchprayoon I, Deerojanawong J, Desudchit T, Prapphal N. Obstructive sleep apnea among children with severe beta-thalassemia. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2012;43(1):152–159.
  • Tan HL, Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Obstructive sleep apnea in children: a critical update. Nat Sci Sleep. 2013;5:109–123.
  • Li KK, Kushida C, Powell NB, Riley RW, Guilleminault C. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: a comparison between Far-East Asian and white men. Laryngoscope. 2000;110(10 Pt 1):1689–1693. doi:10.1097/00005537-200010000-00022
  • Marcus CL, Omlin KJ, Basinki DJ, et al. Normal polysomnographic values for children and adolescents. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;146(5 Pt 1):1235–1239. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/146.5_Pt_1.1235
  • Fleck RJ, Shott SR, Mahmoud M, Ishman SL, Amin RS, Donnelly LF. Magnetic resonance imaging of obstructive sleep apnea in children. Pediatr Radiol. 2018;48(9):1223–1233. doi:10.1007/s00247-018-4180-2
  • Zaffanello M, Antoniazzi F, Tenero L, Nosetti L, Piazza M, Piacentini G. Sleep-disordered breathing in paediatric setting: existing and upcoming of the genetic disorders. Ann Transl Med. 2018;6(17):343. doi:10.21037/atm
  • Hill CM, Evans HJ, Elphick H, et al. Prevalence and predictors of obstructive sleep apnoea in young children with down syndrome. Sleep Med. 2016;27-28:99–106. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2016.10.001
  • Ashworth A, Hill CM, Karmiloff-Smith A, Dimitriou D. Cross syndrome comparison of sleep problems in children with down syndrome and Williams syndrome. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(5):1572–1580. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.01.031
  • Ashworth A, Hill CM, Karmiloff-Smith A, Dimitriou D. A cross-syndrome study of the differential effects of sleep on declarative memory consolidation in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Dev Sci. 2017;20(2). doi:10.1111/desc.12383
  • Ashworth A, Hill CM, Karmiloff-Smith A, Dimitriou D. The importance of sleep: attentional problems in school-aged children with down syndrome and Williams syndrome. Behav Sleep Med. 2015;13(6):455–471. doi:10.1080/15402002.2014.940107
  • Uong EC, McDonough JM, Tayag-Kier CE, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the upper airway in children with down syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163(3 Pt 1):731–736. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.163.3.2004231
  • Zucconi M, Weber G, Castronovo V, et al. Sleep and upper airway obstruction in children with achondroplasia. J Pediatr. 1996;129(5):743–749.
  • Arens R, Gozal D, Burrell BC, et al. Arousal and cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia in Prader-Willi syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;153(1):283–287. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.153.1.8542130
  • Gozal D, Arens R, Omlin KJ, Ward SL, Keens TG. Absent peripheral chemosensitivity in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1994;77(5):2231–2236. doi:10.1152/jappl.1994.77.5.2231
  • Clarke GM, Higgins TN. Laboratory investigation of hemoglobinopathies and thalassemias: review and update. Clin Chem. 2000;46(8 Pt 2):1284–1290.
  • Beutler E, Waalen J. The definition of anemia: what is the lower limit of normal of the blood hemoglobin concentration? Blood. 2006;107(5):1747–1750. doi:10.1182/blood-2005-07-3046
  • Ruiz-Arguelles GJ. Altitude above sea level as a variable for definition of anemia. Blood. 2006;108(6):2131–2132. doi:10.1182/blood-2006-04-016352
  • Mclean E, Cogswell M, Egli I, Wojdyla D, de BB. Worldwide prevalence of anaemia, WHO vitamin and mineral nutrition information system, 1993-2005. Public Health Nutr. 2009;12(4):444–454. doi:10.1017/S1368980008002401
  • Connes P. Obstructive sleep apnea and sickle cell disease: towards hemorheological abnormalities and vascular dysfunction worsening. Sleep Med Rev. 2015;24:101–102. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2015.01.007
  • DelRosso LM, Bruni O, Ferri R. Restless sleep disorder in children: a pilot study on a tentative new diagnostic category. Sleep. 2018;41(8). doi:10.1093/sleep/zsy024
  • Abakay O, Abakay A, Palanci Y, et al. Relationship between hepcidin levels and periodic limb movement disorder in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep Breath. 2015;19(2):459–466. doi:10.1007/s11325-014-1028-3
  • Zilberman M, Silverberg DS, Bits I, et al. Improvement of anemia with erythropoietin and intravenous iron reduces sleep-related breathing disorders and improves daytime sleepiness in anemic patients with congestive heart failure. Am Heart J. 2007;154(5):870–876. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2007.07.034
  • Kapelushnik J, Shalev H, Schulman H, Moser A, Tamary H. Upper airway obstruction-related sleep apnea in a child with thalassemia intermedia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2001;23(8):525–526.
  • Tarasiuk A, Abdul-Hai A, Moser A, Freidman B, Tal A, Kapelushnik J. Sleep disruption and objective sleepiness in children with beta-thalassemia and congenital dyserythropoietic anemia. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157(5):463–468. doi:10.1001/archpedi.157.5.463
  • Amini F, Borzabadi-Farahani A, Behnam-Roudsari G, Jafari A, Shahidinejad F. Assessment of the uvulo-glossopharyngeal dimensions in patients with beta-thalassemia major. Sleep Breath. 2013;17(3):943–949. doi:10.1007/s11325-012-0782-3
  • Telen MJ. Beyond hydroxyurea: new and old drugs in the pipeline for sickle cell disease. Blood. 2016;127(7):810–819. doi:10.1182/blood-2015-09-618553
  • Piel FB, Patil AP, Howes RE, et al. Global distribution of the sickle cell gene and geographical confirmation of the malaria hypothesis. Nat Commun. 2010;2(1):104. doi:10.1038/ncomms1104
  • Gulbis B, Eleftheriou A, Angastiniotis M, et al. Epidemiology of rare anaemias in Europe. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2010;686:375–396. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9485-8_22
  • Streetly A, Latinovic R, Henthorn J. Positive screening and carrier results for the England-wide universal newborn sickle cell screening programme by ethnicity and area for 2005-07. J Clin Pathol. 2010;63(7):626–629. doi:10.1136/jcp.2010.077560
  • Rees DC, Williams TN, Gladwin MT. Sickle-cell disease. Lancet. 2010;376(9757):2018–2031. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61029-X
  • Kirkham FJ, Hewes DK, Prengler M, Wade A, Lane R, Evans JP. Nocturnal hypoxaemia and central-nervous-system events in sickle-cell disease. Lancet. 2001;357(9269):1656–1659.
  • Quinn CT, Sargent JW. Daytime steady-state haemoglobin desaturation is a risk factor for overt stroke in children with sickle cell anaemia. Br J Haematol. 2008;140(3):336–339. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2007.06927.x
  • Dowling MM, Quinn CT, Ramaciotti C, et al. Increased prevalence of potential right-to-left shunting in children with sickle cell anaemia and stroke. Br J Haematol. 2017;176(2):300–308. doi:10.1111/bjh.14391
  • Kaleyias J, Mostofi N, Grant M, et al. Severity of obstructive sleep apnea in children with sickle cell disease. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2008;30(9):659–665. doi:10.1097/MPH.0b013e31817eb7ef
  • Hollocks MJ, Kok TB, Kirkham FJ, et al. Nocturnal oxygen desaturation and disordered sleep as a potential factor in executive dysfunction in sickle cell anemia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2012;18(1):168–173. doi:10.1017/S1355617711001469
  • Marshall MJ, Bucks RS, Hogan AM, et al. Auto-adjusting positive airway pressure in children with sickle cell anemia: results of a phase I randomized controlled trial. Haematologica. 2009;94(7):1006–1010. doi:10.3324/haematol.2008.005215
  • Katz T, Schatz J, Roberts CW. Comorbid obstructive sleep apnea and increased risk for sickle cell disease morbidity. Sleep Breath. 2018;22(3):797–804. doi:10.1007/s11325-018-1630-x
  • Sommet J, Alberti C, Couque N, et al. Clinical and haematological risk factors for cerebral macrovasculopathy in a sickle cell disease newborn cohort: a prospective study. Br J Haematol. 2016;172(6):966–977. doi:10.1111/bjh.13916
  • Tripathi A, Jerrell JM, Stallworth JR. Cost-effectiveness of adenotonsillectomy in reducing obstructive sleep apnea, cerebrovascular ischemia, vaso-occlusive pain, and ACS episodes in pediatric sickle cell disease. Ann Hematol. 2011;90(2):145–150. doi:10.1007/s00277-010-1048-4
  • Vichinsky EP, Neumayr LD, Earles AN, et al. Causes and outcomes of the acute chest syndrome in sickle cell disease. National Acute Chest Syndrome Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(25):1855–1865. doi:10.1056/NEJM200006223422502
  • Johnson MC, Kirkham FJ, Redline S, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction in children with sickle cell disease are related to asleep and waking oxygen desaturation. Blood. 2010;116(1):16–21. doi:10.1182/blood-2009-06-227447
  • Onyekwere OC, Campbell A, Teshome M, et al. Pulmonary hypertension in children and adolescents with sickle cell disease. Pediatr Cardiol. 2008;29(2):309–312. doi:10.1007/s00246-007-9018-x
  • Needleman JP, Franco ME, Varlotta L, et al. Mechanisms of nocturnal oxyhemoglobin desaturation in children and adolescents with sickle cell disease. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1999;28(6):418–422.
  • Wittig RM, Roth T, Keenum AJ, Sarnaik S. Snoring, daytime sleepiness, and sickle cell anemia. Am J Dis Child. 1988;142(6):589.
  • Salles C, Ramos RT, Daltro C, Barral A, Marinho JM, Matos MA. Prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea in children and adolescents with sickle cell anemia. J Bras Pneumol. 2009;35(11):1075–1083.
  • Maddern BR, Reed HT, Ohene-Frempong K, Beckerman RC. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in sickle cell disease. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1989;98(3):174–178. doi:10.1177/000348948909800302
  • Samuels MP, Stebbens VA, Davies SC, Picton-Jones E, Southall DP. Sleep related upper airway obstruction and hypoxaemia in sickle cell disease. Arch Dis Child. 1992;67(7):925–929.
  • Sharma S, Efird JT, Knupp C, et al. Sleep disorders in adult sickle cell patients. J Clin Sleep Med. 2015;11(3):219–223. doi:10.5664/jcsm.4530
  • Whitesell PL, Owoyemi O, Oneal P, et al. Sleep-disordered breathing and nocturnal hypoxemia in young adults with sickle cell disease. Sleep Med. 2016;22:47–49. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2016.05.006
  • Raghunathan VM, Whitesell PL, Lim SH. Sleep-disordered breathing in patients with sickle cell disease. Ann Hematol. 2018;97(5):755–762. doi:10.1007/s00277-017-3199-z
  • Jordan LC, McKinstry RC III, Kraut MA, et al. Incidental findings on brain magnetic resonance imaging of children with sickle cell disease. Pediatrics. 2010;126(1):53–61. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2800
  • Chonat S, Saah E, Gera R, Scott-Emuakpor A, Kulkarni R. Co-occurrence of Chiari malformations and sickle cell disease-a diagnostic dilemma: a report of 4 cases and review of literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2011;33(8):624–625. doi:10.1097/MPH.0b013e3182346ec3
  • Huang J, Pinto SJ, Allen JL, et al. Upper airway genioglossal activity in children with sickle cell disease. Sleep. 2011;34(6):773–778. doi:10.5665/SLEEP.1046
  • Salles C, Bispo M, Trindade-Ramos RT. Association between morphometric variables and nocturnal desaturation in sickle-cell anemia. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2014;90(4):420–425. doi:10.1016/j.jped.2014.01.005
  • Zhang SX, Searcy TR, Wu Y, Gozal D, Wang Y. Alternative promoter usage and alternative splicing contribute to mRNA heterogeneity of mouse monocarboxylate transporter 2. Physiol Genomics. 2007;32(1):95–104. doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00192.2007
  • Cakirer B, Hans MG, Graham G, Aylor J, Tishler PV, Redline S. The relationship between craniofacial morphology and obstructive sleep apnea in whites and in African-Americans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163(4):947–950. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.163.4.2005136
  • Rogers VE, Lewin DS, Winnie GB, Geiger-Brown J. Polysomnographic characteristics of a referred sample of children with sickle cell disease. J Clin Sleep Med. 2010;6(4):374–381.
  • L’Esperance VS, Ekong T, Cox SE, et al. Nocturnal haemoglobin oxygen desaturation in urban and rural East African paediatric cohorts with and without sickle cell anaemia: a cross-sectional study. Arch Dis Child. 2016;101(4):352–355. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2014-306468
  • Arens R, McDonough JM, Corbin AM, et al. Linear dimensions of the upper airway structure during development: assessment by magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165(1):117–122. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.165.1.2107140
  • Vogler RC, Ii FJ, Pilgram TK. Age-specific size of the normal adenoid pad on magnetic resonance imaging. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 2000;25(5):392–395.
  • Parikh SR, Sadoughi B, Sin S, Willen S, Nandalike K, Arens R. Deep cervical lymph node hypertrophy: a new paradigm in the understanding of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Laryngoscope. 2013;123(8):2043–2049. doi:10.1002/lary.23748
  • Cappabianca S, Iaselli F, Negro A, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of anatomical risk factors for pediatric obstructive sleep apnoea-hypopnoea: a pilot study. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;77(1):69–75. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2012.09.035
  • Arens R, Sin S, McDonough JM, et al. Changes in upper airway size during tidal breathing in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171(11):1298–1304. doi:10.1164/rccm.200411-1597OC
  • Patini R, Arrica M, Di SE, Gallenzi P, Cordaro M. The use of magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of upper airway structures in paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2016;45(7):20160136. doi:10.1259/dmfr.20160136
  • Kim J, Bhattacharjee R, Dayyat E, et al. Increased cellular proliferation and inflammatory cytokines in tonsils derived from children with obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatr Res. 2009;66(4):423–428. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e3181b453e3
  • Goldbart AD, Goldman JL, Veling MC, Gozal D. Leukotriene modifier therapy for mild sleep-disordered breathing in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(3):364–370. doi:10.1164/rccm.200408-1064OC
  • Goldbart AD, Veling MC, Goldman JL, Li RC, Brittian KR, Gozal D. Glucocorticoid receptor subunit expression in adenotonsillar tissue of children with obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatr Res. 2005;57(2):232–236. doi:10.1203/01.PDR.0000150722.34561.E6
  • Vaishya R, Agarwal AK, Edomwonyi EO, Vijay V. Musculoskeletal manifestations of sickle cell disease: a review. Cureus. 2015;7(10):e358. doi:10.7759/cureus.268
  • Collins WO, Younis RT, Garcia MT. Extramedullary hematopoiesis of the paranasal sinuses in sickle cell disease. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;132(6):954–956. doi:10.1016/j.otohns.2004.07.007
  • Arun RM, Lakkakula BV, Chitharanjan AB. Role of myosin 1H gene polymorphisms in mandibular retrognathism. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2016;149(5):699–704. doi:10.1016/j.ajodo.2015.10.028
  • Halbower AC, McGinley BM, Smith PL. Treatment alternatives for sleep-disordered breathing in the pediatric population. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2008;14(6):551–558. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283130f80
  • Hargrave DR, Wade A, Evans JP, Hewes DK, Kirkham FJ. Nocturnal oxygen saturation and painful sickle cell crises in children. Blood. 2003;101(3):846–848. doi:10.1182/blood-2002-05-1392
  • Lehmann G, Bell TR, Kirkham FJ, et al. Enuresis associated with sleep disordered breathing in children with sickle cell anemia. J Urol. 2012;188(4 Suppl):1572–1576. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2012.02.021
  • L’Esperance VS, Cox SE, Simpson D, et al. Peripheral vascular response to inspiratory gasp in paediatric sickle cell anaemia. Exp Physiol. 2013; 98(1):49–56. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2011.064055
  • Ohene-Frempong K, Weiner SJ, Sleeper LA, et al. Cerebrovascular accidents in sickle cell disease: rates and risk factors. Blood. 1998;91(1):288–294.
  • Robertson PL, Aldrich MS, Hanash SM, Goldstein GW. Stroke associated with obstructive sleep apnea in a child with sickle cell anemia. Ann Neurol. 1988;23(6):614–616. doi:10.1002/ana.410230615
  • Davies SC, Stebbens VA, Samuels MP, Southall DP. Upper airways obstruction and cerebrovascular accident in children with sickle cell anaemia. Lancet. 1989;2(8657):283–284.
  • Kirkham FJ, Datta AK. Hypoxic adaptation during development: relation to pattern of neurological presentation and cognitive disability. Dev Sci. 2006;9(4):411–427. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00507.x
  • Setty BN, Stuart MJ, Dampier C, Brodecki D, Allen JL. Hypoxaemia in sickle cell disease: biomarker modulation and relevance to pathophysiology. Lancet. 2003;362(9394):1450–1455. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14689-2
  • Quinn CT, Variste J, Dowling MM. Haemoglobin oxygen saturation is a determinant of cerebral artery blood flow velocity in children with sickle cell anaemia. Br J Haematol. 2009;145(4):500–505. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.07652.x
  • Makani J, Kirkham FJ, Komba A, et al. Risk factors for high cerebral blood flow velocity and death in Kenyan children with sickle cell anaemia: role of haemoglobin oxygen saturation and febrile illness. Br J Haematol. 2009;145(4):529–532. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.07660.x
  • Dlamini N, Saunders DE, Bynevelt M, et al. Nocturnal oxyhemoglobin desaturation and arteriopathy in a pediatric sickle cell disease cohort. Neurology. 2017;89(24):2406–2412. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000004728
  • Schwab RJ, Pasirstein M, Kaplan L, Pierson R, Mackley A, Hachadoorian R, et al. Family aggregation of upper airway soft tissue structures in normal subjects and patients with sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;173(4):453–463
  • Nandalike K, Shifteh K, Sin S, Strauss T, Stakofsky A, Gonik N, et al. Adenotonsillectomy in obese children with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome: magnetic resonance imaging findings and considerations. Sleep. 2013;3(6):841–847
  • Schwab RJ, Kim C, Bagchi S, Keenan BT, Comyn FL, Wang S et al. Understanding the anatomic basis for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in adolescents. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 2015;1:191(11):1295–1309
  • Tong Y, Udupa JK, Sin S, Liu Z, Wileyto EP, Drew A et al. MR Image Analytics to Characterize the Upper Airway Structure in Obese Children with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome. PLoS One. 2016;11(8):e0159327