251
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Sleep, a Governor of Morbidity in PTSD: A Systematic Review of Biological Markers in PTSD-Related Sleep Disturbances

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon &
Pages 545-562 | Published online: 31 Jul 2020

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). 5th ed. American Psychiatric Pub; 2013:280. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.744053
  • Ferry F, Bunting B, Murphy S, O’Neill S, Stein D, Koenen K. Traumatic events and their relative PTSD burden in Northern Ireland: a consideration of the impact of the “Troubles”. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2014;49(3):435–446. doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0757-0
  • Bunting BP, Ferry FR, Murphy SD, O’Neill SM, Bolton D. Trauma associated with civil conflict and posttraumatic stress disorder: evidence from the Northern Ireland study of health and stress. J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(1):134–141. doi:10.1002/jts.21766
  • Burri A, Maercker A. Differences in prevalence rates of PTSD in various European countries explained by war exposure, other trauma and cultural value orientation. BMC Res Notes. 2014;7(1):1–11. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-7-407
  • Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Milanak ME, Miller MW, Keyes KM, Friedman MJ. National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(5):537–547. doi:10.1002/jts.21848
  • Dorrington S, Zavos H, Ball H, et al. Trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder and psychiatric disorders in a middle-income setting: prevalence and comorbidity. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;205(5):383–389. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.141796
  • Frissa S, Hatch SL, Gazard B, Fear NT, Hotopf M. Trauma and current symptoms of PTSD in a South East London community. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013;48(8):1199–1209. doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0689-8
  • Tanielian T, Jaycox LH, Adamson DM, et al. Invisible Wounds of War: Psychological and Cognitive Injuries, Their Consequences, and Services to Assist Recovery. Vol. 60. 2008. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.60.2.273
  • Bennett P, Williams Y, Page N, Hood K, Woollard M. Levels of mental health problems among UK emergency ambulance workers. Emerg Med J. 2004;21(2):235–236. doi:10.1136/emj.2003.005645
  • Milanak ME, Zuromski KL, Cero I, Wilkerson AK, Resnick HS, Kilpatrick DG. Traumatic event exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and sleep disturbances in a national sample of U.S. adults. J Trauma Stress. 2019;32(1):14–22. doi:10.1002/jts.22360
  • McLay RN, Klam WP, Volkert SL. Insomnia is the most commonly reported symptom and predicts other symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in U.S. service members returning from military deployments. Mil Med. 2010;175(10):759–762. doi:10.7205/MILMED-D-10-00193
  • El-Solh AA, Riaz U, Roberts J. Sleep disorders in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Chest. 2018;154:427–439. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2018.04.007
  • Neylan TC, Marmar CR, Metzler TJ, et al. Sleep disturbances in the Vietnam generation: findings from a nationally representative sample of male Vietnam Veterans. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(7):929–933. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.7.929
  • Ohayon MM, Shapiro CM. Sleep disturbances and psychiatric disorders associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in the general population. Compr Psychiatry. 2000;41(6):469–478. doi:10.1053/comp.2000.16568
  • Quante M, Kaplan ER, Cailler M, et al. Actigraphy-based sleep estimation in adolescents and adults: a comparison with polysomnography using two scoring algorithms. Nat Sci Sleep. 2018;10:13–20. doi:10.2147/NSS.S151085
  • Tahmasian M, Khazaie H, Golshani S, Avis KT. Clinical application of actigraphy in psychotic disorders: a systematic review. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2013;15(6):359. doi:10.1007/s11920-013-0359-2
  • Natale V, Léger D, Martoni M, Bayon V, Erbacci A. The role of actigraphy in the assessment of primary insomnia: a retrospective study. Sleep Med. 2014;15(1):111–115. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2013.08.792
  • Palesh O, Haitz K, Levi F, et al. Relationship between subjective and actigraphy-measured sleep in 237 patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Qual Life Res. 2017;26(10):2783–2791. doi:10.1007/s11136-017-1617-2
  • Van Hees VT, Sabia S, Anderson KN, et al. A novel, open access method to assess sleep duration using a wrist-worn accelerometer. PLoS One. 2015;10(11):1–13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142533
  • Rosenberger ME, Buman MP, Haskell WL, et al. 24 hours of sleep, sedentary behavior, and physical activity with nine wearable devices. Med Sci Sport Exerc. 2016;48(3):457–465. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000778.24
  • Cellini N, Buman MP, Mcdevitt EA, Ricker AA, Mednick SC. Direct comparison of two actigraphy devices with polysomnographically recorded naps in healthy young adults. Chronobiol Int. 2013;30(5):691–698. doi:10.3109/07420528.2013.782312
  • van Hees VT, Sabia S, Jones SE, et al. Estimating sleep parameters using an accelerometer without sleep diary. bioRxiv. 2018:257972. doi:10.1101/257972
  • Rowlands AV, Yates T, Davies M, Khunti K, Edwardson CL. Raw accelerometer data analysis with GGIR R-package: does accelerometer brand matter? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48(10):1935–1941. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000978
  • van Hees V, Sabia S, Jones S, et al. Assessment of sleep parameters from raw accelerometry data. Sleep Med. 2017;40:e333. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2017.11.980
  • Cox RC, Tuck BM, Olatunji BO. Sleep disturbance in post traumatic stress disorder: epiphenomenon or causal factor? Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2017;19(4). doi:10.1007/s11920-017-0773-y
  • Gehrman P, Seelig AD, Jacobson IG, et al. Predeployment sleep duration and insomnia symptoms as risk factors for new-onset mental health disorders following military deployment. Sleep. 2013;36(7):1009–1018. doi:10.5665/sleep.2798
  • Van Liempt S, Van Zuiden M, Westenberg H, Super A, Vermetten E. Impact of impaired sleep on the development of PTSD symptoms in combat veterans: a prospective longitudinal cohort study. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(5):469–474. doi:10.1002/da.22054
  • Koren D, Arnon I, Lavie P, Klein E. Sleep complaints as early predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder: a 1-Year prospective study of injured survivors of motor vehicle accidents. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(5):855–857. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.855
  • Belleville G, Guay S, Marchand A. Persistence of sleep disturbances following cognitive-behavior therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychosom Res. 2011;70(4):318–327. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.09.022
  • Bao YP, Han Y, Ma J, et al. Cooccurrence and bidirectional prediction of sleep disturbances and depression in older adults: meta-analysis and systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;75:257–273. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.032
  • Cox RC, Olatunji BO. A systematic review of sleep disturbance in anxiety and related disorders. J Anxiety Disord. 2016;37:104–129. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.12.001
  • Bernert RA, Kim JS, Iwata NG, Perlis ML. Sleep disturbances as an evidence-based suicide risk factor. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2015;17(3):1–9. doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0554-4
  • Taylor DJ, Peterson AL, Pruiksma KE, et al. Impact of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia disorder on sleep and comorbid symptoms in military personnel: a randomized clinical trial. Sleep. 2018:1–11. doi:10.1093/sleep/zsy069
  • Talbot LS, Maguen S, Metzler TJ, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Sleep. 2014;37(2):327–341. doi:10.5665/sleep.3408
  • Taylor DJ, Pruiksma KE. Cognitive and behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) in psychiatric populations: a systematic review. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2014;26(2):205–213. doi:10.3109/09540261.2014.902808
  • Germain A. Sleep disturbances as the hallmark of PTSD: where are we now? Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(4):372–382. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12040432
  • Straus LD, Drummond SPA, Nappi CM, Jenkins MM, Norman SB. Sleep variability in military-related PTSD: a comparison to primary insomnia and healthy controls. J Trauma Stress. 2015;28(1):8–16. doi:10.1002/jts.21982
  • Rozpedek W. Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychiatr I Neuropsychol. 2015;10(1):27–39.
  • Sabbagh JJ, Cordova RA, Zheng D, et al. Targeting the FKBP51/GR/Hsp90 complex to identify functionally relevant treatments for depression and PTSD. ACS Chem Biol. 2018;13(8):2288–2299. doi:10.1021/acschembio.8b00454
  • Stephens MAC, Wand G. Stress and the HPA axis: role of glucocorticoids in alcohol dependence. Alcohol Res. 2012;34(4):468–483. doi:10.1002/brb3.990
  • Touma C, Gassen NC, Herrmann L, et al. FK506 binding protein 5 shapes stress responsiveness: modulation of neuroendocrine reactivity and coping behavior. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;70(10):928–936. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.07.023
  • Van Zuiden M, Geuze E, Willemen HLDM, et al. Pre-existing high glucocorticoid receptor number predicting development of posttraumatic stress symptoms after military deployment. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168(1):89–96. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10050706
  • Van Zuiden M, Geuze E, Willemen HLDM, et al. Glucocorticoid receptor pathway components predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptom development: a prospective study. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;71(4):309–316. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.10.026
  • Yehuda R, Cai G, Golier JA, et al. Gene expression patterns associated with posttraumatic stress disorder following exposure to the world trade center attacks. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66(7):708–711. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.02.034
  • Sarapas C, Cai G, Bierer LM, et al. Genetic markers for PTSD risk and resilience among survivors of the world trade center attacks. Dis Markers. 2011;30(2–3):101–110. doi:10.3233/DMA-2011-0764
  • Daskalakis NP, Cohen H, Nievergelt CM, et al. New translational perspectives for blood-based biomarkers of PTSD: from glucocorticoid to immune mediators of stress susceptibility. Exp Neurol. 2016;284(Pt B):133–140. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.07.024
  • Hoge EA, Brandstetter K, Moshier S, Pollack MH, Wong KK, Simon NM. Broad spectrum of cytokine abnormalities in panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(5):447–455. doi:10.1002/da.20564
  • Hou N, Zhang X, Zhao L, et al. A novel chronic stress-induced shift in the Th1 to Th2 response promotes colon cancer growth. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2013;439(4):471–476. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.08.101
  • Kidd P. Th1/Th2 balance: the hypothesis, its limitations, and implications for health and disease. Altern Med Rev. 2003;8(3):223–246.
  • Passos IC, Vasconcelos-Moreno MP, Costa LG, et al. Inflammatory markers in post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015;2(11):1002–1012. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00309-0
  • Wilson CB, McLaughlin LD, Nair A, Ebenezer PJ, Dange R, Francis J. Inflammation and oxidative stress are elevated in the brain, blood, and adrenal glands during the progression of post-traumatic stress disorder in a predator exposure animal model. PLoS One. 2013;8(10):1–10. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076146
  • Maslov B, Marcinko D, Milicevic R, Babic D, Dordevic V, Jakovljevic M. Metabolic syndrome, anxiety, depression and suicidal tendencies in post-traumatic stress disorder and schizophrenic patients. Coll Antropol. 2009;33(Suppl 2):7–10.
  • David D, Woodward C, Esquenazi J, Mellman TA. Comparison of comorbid physical illnesses among veterans with PTSD and veterans with alcohol dependence. Psychiatr Serv. 2004;55(1):82–85. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.55.1.82
  • McFarlane AC. The long-term costs of traumatic stress: intertwined physical and psychological consequences. World Psychiatry. 2010;9(1):3–10. doi:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00254.x
  • Beristianos MH, Yaffe K, Cohen B, Byers AL. PTSD and risk of incident cardiovascular disease in aging Veterans. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016;24(3):192–200. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2014.12.003
  • Brudey C, Park J, Wiaderkiewicz J, Kobayashi I, Mellman TA, Marvar PJ. Autonomic and inflammatory consequences of posttraumatic stress disorder and the link to cardiovascular disease. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2015;309(4):R315–21. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00343.2014
  • Rohleder N, Karl A. Role of endocrine and inflammatory alterations in comorbid somatic diseases of post-traumatic stress disorder. Minerva Endocrinol. 2006;31(4):273–288.
  • Boscarino JA. Posttraumatic stress disorder and physical illness: results from clinical and epidemiologic studies. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1032:141–153. doi:10.1196/annals.1314.011
  • Levine AB, Levine LM, Levine TB. Posttraumatic stress disorder and cardiometabolic disease. Cardiology. 2014;127(1):1–19. doi:10.1159/000354910
  • De Felice FG, Ferreira ST. Inflammation, defective insulin signaling, and mitochondrial dysfunction as common molecular denominators connecting type 2 diabetes to Alzheimer disease. Diabetes. 2014;63(7):2262–2272. doi:10.2337/db13-1954
  • Golub Y, Kaltwasser SF, Mauch CP, et al. Reduced hippocampus volume in the mouse model of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(5):650–659. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.10.014
  • Bremner JDD, Elzinga B, Schmahl C, Vermetten E. Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Brain Res. 2008;167(07):171–186. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67012-5.Structural
  • Massicotte C, Scherer SS. Neuropathies—translating causes into treatments. In: Waxman SBT-FNTN, editor. From Neuroscience to Neurology. Burlington: Elsevier; 2005:405–xvii. doi:10.1016/B978-012738903-5/50025-4
  • Andero R, Choi DC, Ressler KJ. Chapter six - BDNF–TrkB receptor regulation of distributed adult neural plasticity, memory formation, and psychiatric disorders. In: Khan ZU, Muly ECBT-P editors, Molecular Basis of Memory. Vol. 122. Academic Press; 2014:169–192. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-420170-5.00006-4
  • Kowiański P, Lietzau G, Czuba E, Waśkow M, Steliga A, Moryś J. BDNF: a key factor with multipotent impact on brain signaling and synaptic plasticity. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2018;38(3):579–593. doi:10.1007/s10571-017-0510-4
  • Mondal AC, Fatima M. Direct and indirect evidences of BDNF and NGF as key modulators in depression: role of antidepressants treatment. Int J Neurosci. 2019;129(3):283–296. doi:10.1080/00207454.2018.1527328
  • Aksu S, Unlu G, Kardesler AC, Cakaloz B, Aybek H. Altered levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, proBDNF and tissue plasminogen activator in children with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2018;268:478–483. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.07.013
  • Arumugam V, John VS, Augustine N, et al. The impact of antidepressant treatment on brain-derived neurotrophic factor level: an evidence-based approach through systematic review and meta-analysis. Indian J Pharmacol. 2017;49(3):236–242. doi:10.4103/ijp.IJP_700_16
  • Aspesi D, Pinna G. Could a blood test for PTSD and depression be on the horizon? Expert Rev Proteomics. 2018;15(12):983–1006. doi:10.1080/14789450.2018.1544894
  • Schmidt U, Kaltwasser SF, Wotjak CT. Biomarkers in posttraumatic stress disorder: overview and implications for future research. Dis Markers. 2013;35(1):43–54. doi:10.1155/2013/835876
  • Rusch HL, Guardado P, Baxter T, Mysliwiec V, Gill JM. Improved sleep quality is associated with reductions in depression and PTSD arousal symptoms and increases in IGF-1 concentrations. J Clin Sleep Med. 2015;11(6):615–623. doi:10.5664/jcsm.4770
  • Bachmann V, Klein C, Bodenmann S, et al. The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism modulates sleep intensity: EEG frequency- and state-specificity. Sleep. 2012. doi:10.5665/sleep.1690
  • Abel T, Havekes R, Saletin JM, Walker MP. Sleep, plasticity and memory from molecules to whole-brain networks. Curr Biol. 2013;23(17):R774–R788. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.07.025
  • Rasch B, Born J. About sleep’s role in memory. Physiol Rev. 2013;93(2):681–766. doi:10.1152/physrev.00032.2012
  • Mahmood D, Muhammad BY, Alghani M, Anwar J, el-Lebban N, Haider M. Advancing role of melatonin in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Egypt J Basic Appl Sci. 2016;3(3):203–218. doi:10.1016/j.ejbas.2016.07.001
  • Joshi N, Biswas J, Nath C, Singh S. Promising role of melatonin as neuroprotectant in neurodegenerative pathology. Mol Neurobiol. 2015;52(1):330–340. doi:10.1007/s12035-014-8865-8
  • Boks MP, Rutten BPF, Geuze E, et al. SKA2 methylation is involved in cortisol stress reactivity and predicts the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after military deployment. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41(5):1350–1356. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.286
  • Ma X, Idle JR, Krausz KW, Gonzalez FJ. Metabolism of melatonin by human cytochromes P450. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005;33(4):489–494. doi:10.1124/dmd.104.002410.not
  • Benarroch EE, Suprachiasmatic nucleus and melatonin. Neurology. 2008;71(8):594LP- 598. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000324283.57261.37
  • Abouzeid M, Kelsall HL, Forbes AB, Sim MR, Creamer MC. Posttraumatic stress disorder and hypertension in Australian veterans of the 1991 Gulf War. J Psychosom Res. 2012;72(1):33–38. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2011.08.002
  • Sumner JA, Kubzansky LD, Roberts AL, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and risk of hypertension over 22 years in a large cohort of younger and middle-aged women. Psychol Med. 2016;46(15):3105–3116. doi:10.1017/S0033291716001914
  • Balint EM, Boseva P, Schury K, Guendel H, Rottbauer W, Waller C. High prevalence of posttraumatic stress in patients with primary hypertension. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2016;38:53–58. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.10.002
  • Burg MM, Soufer R. Post-traumatic stress disorder and cardiovascular disease. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2016;18(10):94. doi:10.1007/s11886-016-0770-5
  • Parthasarathy S, Vasquez MM, Halonen M, et al. Persistent insomnia is associated with mortality risk. Am J Med. 2015;128(3):268–75.e2. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2014.10.015
  • Irwin MR, Olmstead R, Carroll JE. Sleep disturbance, sleep duration, and inflammation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies and experimental sleep deprivation. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;80(1):40–52. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.05.014
  • Critical Appraisal Skills Programme. CASP case control study checklist. CASP. 2018;2018:1–6. https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CASP-Case-Control-Study-Checklist-2018.pdf.
  • Goldet G, Howick J. Understanding GRADE: an introduction. J Evid Based Med. 2013;6(1):50–54. doi:10.1111/jebm.12018
  • de la Sierra A, Gorostidi M, Banegas JR, Segura J, de la Cruz JJ, Ruilope LM. Nocturnal hypertension or nondipping: which is better associated with the cardiovascular risk profile? Am J Hypertens. 2014;27(5):680–687. doi:10.1093/ajh/hpt175
  • Michels N, Sioen I, Clays E, et al. Children’s heart rate variability as stress indicator: association with reported stress and cortisol. Biol Psychol. 2013;94(2):433–440. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.08.005
  • Winter M, Tyree K. Polyvagal theory. Encycl Evol Psychol Sci. 2016;74(2):1–5. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_2311-1
  • Rowaiye OO, Jankowska EA, Ponikowska B. Baroreceptor sensitivity and diabetes mellitus. Cardiol J. 2013;20(5):453–463. doi:10.5603/CJ.2013.0130
  • La Rovere MT, Pinna GD, Raczak G. Baroreflex sensitivity: measurement and clinical implications. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol. 2008;13(2):191–207. doi:10.1111/j.1542-474X.2008.00219.x
  • Hansen TW, Li Y, Boggia J, Thijs L, Richart T, Staessen JA. Predictive role of the nighttime blood pressure. Hypertens. 2011;57(1):3–10. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.133900
  • Holt-Lunstad J, Steffen PR. Diurnal cortisol variation is associated with nocturnal blood pressure dipping. Psychosom Med. 2007;69(4):339–343. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e318050d6cc
  • Liston C, Cichon JM, Jeanneteau F, Jia Z, Chao MV, Gan W-B. Circadian glucocorticoid oscillations promote learning-dependent synapse formation and maintenance. Nat Neurosci. 2013;16(6):698–705. doi:10.1038/nn.3387
  • Davidson JR, Dawson S, Krsmanovic A. Effectiveness of group cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) in a primary care setting. Behav Sleep Med. 2017;1–13. doi:10.1080/15402002.2017.1318753
  • Cohen S, Kozlovsky N, Matar MA, Kaplan Z, Zohar J, Cohen H. Post-exposure sleep deprivation facilitates correctly timed interactions between glucocorticoid and adrenergic systems, which attenuate traumatic stress responses. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012;37(11):2388–2404. doi:10.1038/npp.2012.94
  • Prather AA, Vogelzangs N, Penninx BWJH. Sleep duration, insomnia, and markers of systemic inflammation: results from the Netherlands study of depression and anxiety (NESDA). J Psychiatr Res. 2015;60:95–102. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.09.018
  • Van Zuiden M, Heijnen CJ, van de Schoot R, et al. Cytokine production by leukocytes of military personnel with depressive symptoms after deployment to a combat-zone: a prospective, longitudinal study. PLoS One. 2011;6(12):e29142. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029142
  • Silverman MN, Sternberg EM. Glucocorticoid regulation of inflammation and its behavioural and metabolic correlates: from HPA axis to glucocorticoid receptor dysfunction. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2012;1261:55–63. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06633.x.Glucocorticoid
  • Han QQ, Yu J. Inflammation: a mechanism of depression? Neurosci Bull. 2014;30(3):515–523. doi:10.1007/s12264-013-1439-3
  • Slavich GM, Irwin MR. Social signal transduction theory of depression. Psychiatr Bull. 2014;140(3):774–815. doi:10.1037/a0035302.From
  • Allison DJ, Ditor DS. The common inflammatory etiology of depression and cognitive impairment: a therapeutic target. J Neuroinflammation. 2014;11(1):1–12. doi:10.1186/s12974-014-0151-1
  • Andero R, Choi DC, Ressler KJ. BDNF-TrkB receptor regulation of distributed adult neural plasticity, memory formation, and psychiatric disorders. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2014;122:169–192. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-420170-5.00006-4
  • Johnson-Farley NN, Travkina T, Cowen DS. Cumulative activation of akt and consequent inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 by brain-derived neurotrophic factor and insulin-like growth factor-1 in cultured hippocampal neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2006;316(3):1062–1069. doi:10.1124/jpet.105.094433
  • Zhao D, Yu Y, Shen Y, et al. Melatonin synthesis and function: evolutionary history in animals and plants. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:1–16. doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00249
  • McFarlane AC, Barton CA, Briggs N, Kennaway DJ. The relationship between urinary melatonin metabolite excretion and posttraumatic symptoms following traumatic injury. J Affect Disord. 2010;127(1–3):365–369. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.05.002
  • Zhang HM, Zhang Y. Melatonin: a well-documented antioxidant with conditional pro-oxidant actions. J Pineal Res. 2014;57(2):131–146. doi:10.1111/jpi.12162
  • Hoge CW, Riviere LA, Wilk JE, Herrell RK, Weathers FW. The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in US combat soldiers: a head-to-head comparison of DSM-5 versus DSM-IV-TR symptom criteria with the PTSD checklist. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1(4):269–277. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70235-4
  • McCall C, McCall WV. Objective vs. subjective measurements of sleep in depressed insomniacs: first night effect or reverse first night effect? J Clin Sleep Med JCSM off Publ Am Acad Sleep Med. 2012;8(1):59–65. doi:10.5664/jcsm.1664
  • Lehavot K, Katon JG, Chen JA, Fortney JC, Simpson TL. Post-traumatic stress disorder by gender and Veteran status. Am J Prev Med. 2018;54(1):e1–e9. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2017.09.008
  • Briant LJB, Charkoudian N, Hart EC. Sympathetic regulation of blood pressure in normotension and hypertension: when sex matters. Exp Physiol. 2016;101(2):219–229. doi:10.1113/EP085368
  • Agushi E, Xhyheri B, Bugiardini R. Sex differences in biomarkers for predicting cardiovascular and coronary events. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2013;11(5):785–794. doi:10.2174/1570161111311050017
  • Tothova L, Ostatnikova D, Sebekova K, Celec P, Hodosy J. Sex differences of oxidative stress markers in young healthy subjects are marker-specific in plasma but not in saliva. Ann Hum Biol. 2013;40(2):175–180. doi:10.3109/03014460.2012.754495
  • Newbern D, Gumus Balikcioglu P, Balikcioglu M, et al. Sex differences in biomarkers associated with insulin resistance in obese adolescents: metabolomic profiling and principal components analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(12):4730–4739. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-2080
  • Wise EA, Beck JG. Work-related trauma, PTSD, and workers compensation legislation: implications for practice and policy. Psychol Trauma. 2015;7(5):500–506. doi:10.1037/tra0000039
  • Ulmer CS, Calhoun PS, Bosworth HB, Dennis MF, Beckham JC, Nocturnal blood pressure non-dipping, posttraumatic stress disorder, and sleep quality in women. Behav Med. 2013;39(4):111–121. doi:10.1080/08964289.2013.813434
  • Livingston WS, Rusch HL, Nersesian PV, Baxter T, Mysliwiec V, Gill JM. Improved sleep in military personnel is associated with changes in the expression of inflammatory genes and improvement in depression symptoms. Front Psychiatry. 2015;6. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00059
  • Zucker TL, Samuelson KW, Muench F, Greenberg MA, Gevirtz RN. The effects of respiratory sinus arrhythmia biofeedback on heart rate variability and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: a pilot study. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2009;34(2):135–143. doi:10.1007/s10484-009-9085-2
  • Kobayashi I, Lavela J, Mellman TA. Nocturnal autonomic balance and sleep in PTSD and resilience. J Trauma Stress. 2014;27(6):712–716. doi:10.1002/jts.21973
  • Davis JL, Rhudy JL, Pruiksma KE, et al. Physiological predictors of response to exposure, relaxation, and rescripting therapy for chronic nightmares in a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Sleep Med. 2011;7(6):622–631. doi:10.5664/jcsm.1466
  • Ulmer CS, Calhoun PS, Edinger JD, Wagner HR, Beckham JC. Sleep disturbance and baroreceptor sensitivity in women with post-traumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 2009;22(6):643–647. doi:10.1002/jts.20464
  • Heinzelmann M, Lee H, Rak H, et al. Sleep restoration is associated with reduced plasma C-reactive protein and depression symptoms in military personnel with sleep disturbance after deployment. Sleep Med. 2014;15(12):1565–1570. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2014.08.004
  • Tegeler CL, Gerdes L, Shaltout HA, et al. Successful use of closed-loop allostatic neurotechnology for post-traumatic stress symptoms in military personnel: self-reported and autonomic improvements. Mil Med Res. 2017;4(1). doi:10.1186/s40779-017-0147-0
  • Inslicht SS, Rao MN, Richards A, et al. Sleep and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis responses to metyrapone in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018;88:136–143. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.12.002
  • Ulmer CS, Bosworth HB, Germain A, et al. Associations between sleep difficulties and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in veterans and active duty military personnel of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. J Behav Med. 2015;38(3):544–555. doi:10.1007/s10865-015-9627-4
  • Phelps AJ, Kanaan RAA, Worsnop C, Redston S, Ralph N, Forbes D. An ambulatory polysomnography study of the post-traumatic nightmares of post-traumatic stress disorder. Sleep. 2018;41(1). doi:10.1093/sleep/zsx188
  • Liaveri PG, Dikeos D, Ilias I, et al. Quality of sleep in renal transplant recipients and patients on hemodialysis. J Psychosom Res. 2017;93:96–101. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.12.013
  • Van Liempt S, Arends J, Cluitmans PJM, Westenberg HGM, Kahn RS, Vermetten E, Sympathetic activity and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis activity during sleep in post-traumatic stress disorder: a study assessing polysomnography with simultaneous blood sampling. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2013;38(1):155–165. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.05.015
  • Miller KE, Jamison AL, Gala S, Woodward SH. Two independent predictors of nightmares in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(11):1921–1927. doi:10.5664/jcsm.7494
  • Imai R, Hori H, Itoh M, et al. Inflammatory markers and their possible effects on cognitive function in women with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2018;102:192–200. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.04.009