Current Options in the Treatment of COVID-19: A Review

References

• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Gu X. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395:497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-531986264
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emanuel EJ, Persad G, Upshur R, et al. Fair allocation of scarce medical resources in the time of Covid-19. Mass Med Soc. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Lu H. Drug treatment options for the 2019-new coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Biosci Trends. 2020;14:69–71. doi:10.5582/bst.2020.0102031996494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhama K, Sharun K, Tiwari R. COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2020;1–7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu J, Zheng X, Tong Q, Li W. Overlapping and discrete aspects of the pathology and pathogenesis of the emerging human pathogenic coronaviruses SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and 2019-nCoV. J Med Virol. 2020;92:491–494. doi:10.1002/jmv.2570932056249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, Zhang S. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Clin Infect Dis. 2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, et al. COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet. 2020;395:1033. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-032192578
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walmsley S, Bernstein B, King M, et al. Lopinavir–ritonavir versus nelfinavir for the initial treatment of HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:2039–2046. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa01235412087139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guan W-J, Ni Z-Y, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(18):1708–1720. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa200203232109013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muralidharan N, Sakthivel R, Velmurugan D, Gromiha MM. Computational studies of drug repurposing and synergism of lopinavir, oseltamivir and ritonavir binding with SARS-CoV-2 Protease against COVID-19. J Biomol Struct Dyn. 2020;1–6. doi:10.1080/07391102.2020.1752802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JY, Choe PG, Oh Y, et al. The first case of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia imported into Korea from Wuhan, China: implication for infection prevention and control measures. J Korean Med Sci. 2020;35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim J, Jeon S, Shin H-Y, et al. Case of the index patient who caused tertiary transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 in Korea: the application of lopinavir/ritonavir for the treatment of COVID-19 pneumonia monitored by quantitative RT-PCR. J Korean Med Sci. 2020;35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao TT, Qian JD, Zhu WY, Wang Y, Wang GQ. A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus—a possible reference for coronavirus disease-19 treatment option. J Med Virol. 2020;92:556–563. doi:10.1002/jmv.2572932104907
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung IF-N, Lung K-C, Tso EY-K, et al. Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir–ritonavir, and ribavirin in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, Phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2020;395:1695–1704. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31042-432401715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D, et al. A trial of lopinavir–ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(19):1787–1799. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa200128232187464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baden LR, Rubin EJ. Covid-19—the search for effective therapy. Mass Med Soc. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Beyls C, Martin N, Hermida A, Abou-Arab O, Mahjoub Y. Lopinavir-ritonavir treatment for COVID-19 infection in intensive care unit: risk of bradycardia. Circ Arrhythmia Electrophysiol. 2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren TK, Jordan R, Lo MK, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys. Nature. 2016;531(7594):381–385. doi:10.1038/nature1718026934220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11:1–14. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-13940-631911652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pruijssers AJ, George AS, Schäfer A, et al. Remdesivir inhibits SARS-CoV-2 in human lung cells and chimeric SARS-CoV expressing the SARS-CoV-2 RNA polymerase in mice. Cell Rep. 2020;32(3):107940. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2020.10794032668216
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shih WJ, Shen X, Zhang P, Xie T. Remdesivir is effective for moderately severe patients: a re-analysis of the first double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial on remdesivir for treatment of severe COVID-19 patients conducted in Wuhan City. Open Access J Clin Trials. 2020;12:15–21. doi:10.2147/OAJCT.S262606
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Zhang D, Du G, et al. Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet. 2020;395(10236):1569–1578. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31022-932423584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beigel JH, Tomashek KM, Dodd LE, et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of Covid-19-preliminary report. N Engl J Med. 2020. doi:10.1086/657315
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman JD, Lye DC, Hui DS, et al. Remdesivir for 5 or 10 days in patients with severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2015301
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuta Y, Gowen BB, Takahashi K, Shiraki K, Smee DF, Barnard DL. Favipiravir (T-705), a novel viral RNA polymerase inhibitor. Antiviral Res. 2013;100:446–454. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.09.01524084488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuta Y, Takahashi K, Fukuda Y, et al. In vitro and in vivo activities of anti-influenza virus compound T-705. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46:977–981. doi:10.1128/AAC.46.4.977-981.200211897578
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, et al. Experimental treatment with favipiravir for COVID-19: an open-label control study. Engineering. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivashchenko AA, Dmitriev KA, Vostokova NV, Azarova VN. AVIFAVIR for treatment of patients with moderate COVID-19: interim results of a Phase II/III multicenter randomized clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2020. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Ding Y, Yang C, et al. Inhibition of the infectivity and inflammatory response of influenza virus by Arbidol hydrochloride in vitro and in vivo (mice and ferret). Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;91:393–401. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2017.04.09128475918
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leneva IA, Russell RJ, Boriskin YS, Hay AJ. Characteristics of arbidol-resistant mutants of influenza virus: implications for the mechanism of anti-influenza action of arbidol. Antiviral Res. 2009;81:132–140. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2008.10.00919028526
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pécheur E-I, Borisevich V, Halfmann P, et al. The synthetic antiviral drug arbidol inhibits globally prevalent pathogenic viruses. J Virol. 2016;90:3086–3092. doi:10.1128/JVI.02077-1526739045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulseberg C, Fénéant L, Szymańska-de Wijs K, et al. Arbidol and other low-molecular-weight drugs that inhibit Lassa and Ebola viruses. J Virol. 2019;93. doi:10.1128/JVI.02185-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu Z, Lu Z, Xu T, et al. Arbidol monotherapy is superior to lopinavir/ritonavir in treating COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;81:e21–e3. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.06032283143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng L, Li C, Zeng Q, et al. Arbidol combined with LPV/r versus LPV/r alone against Corona virus disease 2019: a retrospective cohort study. J Infect. 2020;81(1):e1–e5. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu P, Huang J, Fan Z, et al. Arbidol/IFN-α2b therapy for patients with corona virus disease 2019: a retrospective multicenter cohort study. Microbes Infect. 2020;22:200–205. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2020.05.01232445881
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen W, Yao M, Fang Z, Lv X, Deng M, Wu Z. A study on clinical effect of Arbidol combined with adjuvant therapy on COVID-19. J Med Virol. 2020. doi:10.1002/jmv.26142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang D, Yu H, Wang T, Yang H, Yao R, Liang Z. Efficacy and safety of umifenovir for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020:1–10.31502247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graci JD, Cameron CE. Mechanisms of action of ribavirin against distinct viruses. Rev Med Virol. 2006;16:37–48. doi:10.1002/rmv.48316287208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bausch DG, Hadi CM, Khan SH, Lertora JJL. Review of the literature and proposed guidelines for the use of oral ribavirin as postexposure prophylaxis for lassa fever. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:1435–1441.21058912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong S, Su Y, Yu Y, et al. Ribavirin therapy for severe COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56:106–114. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106114
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subissi L, Posthuma CC, Collet A, et al. One severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus protein complex integrates processive RNA polymerase and exonuclease activities. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2014;111:E3900–E9. doi:10.1073/pnas.132370511125197083
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elfiky AA. Anti-HCV, nucleotide inhibitors, repurposing against COVID-19. Life Sci. 2020;248:117477. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2020.11747732119961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elfiky AA. Ribavirin, remdesivir, sofosbuvir, galidesivir, and tenofovir against SARS-CoV-2 RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp): a molecular docking study. Life Sci. 2020;253:117592. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2020.11759232222463
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elfiky AA, Mahdy SM, Elshemey WM. Quantitative structure-activity relationship and molecular docking revealed a potency of anti-hepatitis C virus drugs against human corona viruses. J Med Virol. 2017;89:1040–1047. doi:10.1002/jmv.2473627864902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today’s diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3:722–727. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00806-514592603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devaux CA, Rolain J-M, Colson P, Raoult D. New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55:105938. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10593832171740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza G, Olivares N, Ruiz-Arruza I, Martinez-Berriotxoa A, Egurbide M-V, Aguirre C. Predictors of major infections in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther. 2009;11:R109. doi:10.1186/ar276419604357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gautret P, Lagier J-C, Parola P. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(1):105949. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10594932205204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arshad S, Kilgore P, Chaudhry ZS, et al. Treatment with hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, and combination in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;97:396–403. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.06.09932623082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catteau L, Dauby N, Montourcy M, et al. Low-dose hydroxychloroquine therapy and mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a Nationwide observational study of 8075 participants. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(4):106144. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10614432853673
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yogasundaram H, Putko BN, Tien J, et al. Hydroxychloroquine-induced cardiomyopathy: case report, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Can J Cardiol. 2014;30:1706–1715.25475472
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum L. Facing Covid-19 in Italy — ethics, logistics, and therapeutics on the epidemic’s front line. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1873–1875. doi:10.1056/NEJMp200549232187459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colson P, Rolain J-M, Lagier J-C, Brouqui P, Raoult D. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine as available weapons to fight COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55:105932. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10593232145363
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao J, Tian Z, Yang X. Breakthrough: chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends. 2020;14:72–73. doi:10.5582/bst.2020.0104732074550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touret F, de Lamballerie X. Of chloroquine and COVID-19. Antiviral Res. 2020;177:104762. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.10476232147496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30:269–271.32020029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulware DR, Pullen MF, Bangdiwala AS, et al. A randomized trial of hydroxychloroquine as postexposure prophylaxis for covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:517–525. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa201663832492293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez A, Duclos G, Pastene B, et al. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on Covid-19 in intensive care unit patients: preliminary results. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020:106136. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10613632777263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girard AE, Girard D, English AR, et al. Pharmacokinetic and in vivo studies with azithromycin (CP-62,993), a new macrolide with an extended half-life and excellent tissue distribution. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987;31:1948–1954. doi:10.1128/AAC.31.12.19482830841
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gladue RP, Bright GM, Isaacson RE, Newborg MF. In vitro and in vivo uptake of azithromycin (CP-62,993) by phagocytic cells: possible mechanism of delivery and release at sites of infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989;33:277–282. doi:10.1128/AAC.33.3.2772543276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arabi YM, Deeb AM, Al-Hameed F, et al. Macrolides in critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome. Int J Infect Dis. 2019;81:184–190. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2019.01.04130690213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gautret P, Lagier J-C, Parola P, et al. Clinical and microbiological effect of a combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in 80 COVID-19 patients with at least a six-day follow up: a pilot observational study. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;34:101663. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.10166332289548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magagnoli J, Narendran S, Pereira F, et al. Outcomes of hydroxychloroquine usage in United States veterans hospitalized with COVID-19. Med. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.medj.2020.06.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagier J-C, Million M, Gautret P, et al. Outcomes of 3737 COVID-19 patients treated with hydroxychloroquine/azithromycin and other regimens in Marseille, France: a retrospective analysis. Travel Med Infect. 2020;36:101791. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101791
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sekhavati E, Jafari F, SeyedAlinaghi S, et al. NSafety and effectiveness of azithromycin in patients with COVID-19: an open-label randomized trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56:106143. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10614332853672
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarma P, Kaur H, Kumar H, et al. Virological and clinical cure in COVID-19 patients treated with hydroxychloroquine: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92:776–785. doi:10.1002/jmv.2589832297988
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavalcanti AB, Zampieri FG, Rosa RG, et al. Hydroxychloroquine with or without azithromycin in mild-to-moderate Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2019014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Million M, Lagier J-C, Gautret P, et al. Early treatment of COVID-19 patients with hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin: a retrospective analysis of 1061 cases in Marseille, France. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;35:101738. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.10173832387409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Cui R, Li G, et al. Teicoplanin inhibits Ebola pseudovirus infection in cell culture. Antiviral Res. 2016;125:1–7. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2015.11.00326585243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou N, Pan T, Zhang J, et al. Glycopeptide antibiotics potently inhibit cathepsin L in the late endosome/lysosome and block the entry of ebola virus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). J Biol Chem. 2016;291:9218–9232. doi:10.1074/jbc.M116.71610026953343
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron SA, Devaux C, Colson P, Raoult D, Rolain J-M. Teicoplanin: an alternative drug for the treatment of COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55:105944. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10594432179150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z-H, Shu C, Ran X, Xie C-H, Zhang L. Critically Ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in a designated ICU: clinical Features and Predictors for mortality. Risk Manag Healthc Policy. 2020;13:833–845. doi:10.2147/RMHP.S26309532765138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee DW, Gardner R, Porter DL, et al. Current concepts in the diagnosis and management of cytokine release syndrome. Blood. 2014;124:188–195. doi:10.1182/blood-2014-05-55272924876563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Perlman S. Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology. Semin Immunopathol. 2017;39:529–539. doi:10.1007/s00281-017-0629-x28466096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fehr AR, Channappanavar R, Perlman S. Middle east respiratory syndrome: emergence of a pathogenic human coronavirus. Annu Rev Med. 2017;68:387–399. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-051215-03115227576010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahajan S, Decker CE, Yang Z, Veis D, Mellins ED, Faccio R. Plcγ2/Tmem178 dependent pathway in myeloid cells modulates the pathogenesis of cytokine storm syndrome. J Autoimmun. 2019;100:62–74. doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2019.02.00530879886
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crayne CB, Albeituni S, Nichols KE, Cron RQ. The immunology of macrophage activation syndrome. Front Immunol. 2019;10. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu X, Chen P, Wang J, et al. Evolution of the novel coronavirus from the ongoing Wuhan outbreak and modeling of its spike protein for risk of human transmission. Sci China Life Sci. 2020;63:457–460. doi:10.1007/s11427-020-1637-532009228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore JB, June CH. Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19. Science. 2020;368:473–474. doi:10.1126/science.abb892532303591
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen G, Wu D, Guo W, Cao Y. Clinical and immunologic features in severe and moderate forms of coronavirus disease. J Clin Invest. 2019;137244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao W, Liu X, Bai T, et al. High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin as a therapeutic option for deteriorating patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofaa102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L, Xiong J, Bao L. Convalescent plasma as a potential therapy for COVID-19. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20:398–400. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30141-932113510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Use of convalescent whole blood or plasma collected from patients recovered from Ebola virus disease for transfusion, as an empirical treatment during outbreaks: interim guidance for national health authorities and blood transfusion services. World Health Organisation; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, et al. Treatment of 5 critically ill patients with COVID-19 with convalescent plasma. JAMA. 2020;323:1582–1589. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.478332219428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye M, Fu D, Ren Y, Wang F. Treatment with convalescent plasma for COVID-19 patients in Wuhan, China. J Med Virol. 2020:1–12.31502247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajendran K, Krishnasamy N, Rangarajan J, Rathinam J, Natarajan M, Ramachandran A. Convalescent plasma transfusion for the treatment of COVID-19: systematic review. J Med Virol. 2020;92:1475–1483. doi:10.1002/jmv.25961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joyner MJ, Bruno KA, Klassen SA, et al. Safety update: COVID-19 convalescent plasma in 20,000 hospitalized patients. Mayo Clin Proc. 2020;95:1888–1897. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.06.02832861333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeng Q-L, Yu Z-J, Gou -J-J, et al. Effect of convalescent plasma therapy on viral shedding and survival in patients with coronavirus disease 2019. J Infect Dis. 2020;222:38–43. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiaa22832348485
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genovese MC, Kremer J, Zamani O, et al. Baricitinib in patients with refractory rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:1243–1252. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa150724727028914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honda S, Harigai M. The safety of baricitinib in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2020;19:545–551. doi:10.1080/14740338.2020.174326332174196
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson P, Griffin I, Tucker C, et al. Baricitinib as potential treatment for 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease. Lancet. 2020;395:e30–e1.32032529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stebbing J, Phelan A, Griffin I, et al. COVID-19: combining antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatments. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20:400–402. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30132-832113509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titanji BK, Farley MM, Mehta A, et al. Use of baricitinib in patients with moderate and severe COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montealegre G, Reinhardt A, Brogan P, et al. Preliminary response to Janus kinase inhibition with baricitinib in chronic atypical neutrophilic dermatosis with lipodystrophy and elevated temperatures (CANDLE). Pediatr Rheumatol. 2015;13:O31. doi:10.1186/1546-0096-13-S1-O31
   Google Scholar
• Praveen D, Puvvada RC, Aanandhi V. Janus kinase inhibitor baricitinib is not an ideal option for management of COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55:105967. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10596732259575
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huizinga TW, Kay J, Harigai M, et al. e48 Effects of baricitinib on haematological laboratory parameters in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology. 2018;57(suppl_3). doi:10.1093/rheumatology/key075.589.
   Google Scholar
• Sibila O, Agustí C, Torres A. Corticosteroids in severe pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2008;32:259–264. doi:10.1183/09031936.0015410718669784
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adcock IM, Gilbey T, Gelder CM, Chung KF, Barnes PJ. Glucocorticoid receptor localization in normal and asthmatic lung. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;154:771–782. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.154.3.88106188810618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters JA, Tan DJ, White CJ, Gibson PG, Wood-Baker R, Walters EH. Systemic corticosteroids for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Peters MC, Sajuthi S, Deford P, et al. COVID-19 related genes in sputum cells in asthma: relationship to demographic features and corticosteroids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020;202(1):83–90. doi:10.1164/rccm.202003-0821OC32348692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Group RC. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with Covid-19—preliminary report. N Engl J Med. 2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpin DM, Singh D, Hadfield RM. Inhaled corticosteroids and COVID-19: a systematic review and clinical perspective. Eur Respir Soc. 2020;55(5):2001009. doi:10.1183/13993003.01009-2020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zha L, Li S, Pan L, et al. Corticosteroid treatment of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Med J Aust. 2020;212:416–420. doi:10.5694/mja2.5057732266987
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arabi YM, Mandourah Y, Al-Hameed F, et al. Corticosteroid therapy for critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;197(6):757–767. doi:10.1164/rccm.201706-1172OC29161116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell CD, Millar JE, Baillie JK. Clinical evidence does not support corticosteroid treatment for 2019-nCoV lung injury. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):473–475. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30317-232043983
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon D, Tascilar K, Krönke G, et al. Patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases receiving cytokine inhibitors have low prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):3774. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17703-632709909
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waugh J, Perry CM. Anakinra. BioDrugs. 2005;19(3):189–202. doi:10.2165/00063030-200519030-0000515984903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eloseily EM, Weiser P, Crayne CB, et al. Benefit of anakinra in treating pediatric secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2020;72(2):326–334. doi:10.1002/art.4110331513353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimopoulos G, de Mast Q, Markou N, et al. Favorable anakinra responses in severe covid-19 patients with secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;28:117–23.e1. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.05.00732411313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huet T, Beaussier H, Voisin O, et al. Anakinra for severe forms of COVID-19: a cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020;2:e393–e400. doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30164-832835245
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cavalli G, De Luca G, Campochiaro C, et al. Interleukin-1 blockade with high-dose anakinra in patients with COVID-19, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and hyperinflammation: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020;2:e325–e31. doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30127-232501454
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• King A, Vail A, O’Leary C, et al. Anakinra in COVID-19: important considerations for clinical trials. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020;2:e379–e81. doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30160-032835233
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Le RQ, Li L, Yuan W, et al. FDA approval summary: tocilizumab for treatment of chimeric antigen receptor T cell-induced severe or life-threatening cytokine release syndrome. Oncologist. 2018;23:943–947. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2018-002829622697
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srirangan S, Choy EH. The role of Interleukin 6 in the pathophysiology of rheumatoid arthritis. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis. 2010;2:247–256. doi:10.1177/1759720X1037837222870451
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sanmartí R, Ruiz-Esquide V, Bastida C, Soy D. Tocilizumab in the treatment of adult rheumatoid arthritis. Immunotherapy. 2018;10:447–464. doi:10.2217/imt-2017-017329495891
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biran N, Ip A, Ahn J, et al. Tocilizumab among patients with COVID-19 in the intensive care unit: a multicentre observational study. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020;2(10):e603–e612. doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30277-032838323
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Toniati P, Piva S, Cattalini M, et al. Tocilizumab for the treatment of severe COVID-19 pneumonia with hyperinflammatory syndrome and acute respiratory failure: a single center study of 100 patients in Brescia, Italy. Autoimmun Rev. 2020;19:102568. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2020.10256832376398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guaraldi G, Meschiari M, Cozzi-Lepri A, et al. Tocilizumab in patients with severe COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020;2:e474–e84. doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30173-932835257
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Luo P, Liu Y, Qiu L, Liu X, Liu D, Li J. Tocilizumab treatment in COVID-19: a single center experience. J Med Virol. 2020;92:814–818. doi:10.1002/jmv.2580132253759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alattar R, Ibrahim TBH, Shaar SH, et al. Tocilizumab for the treatment of severe coronavirus disease 2019. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):2042–2049. doi:10.1002/jmv.25964
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keske Ş, Tekin S, Sait B, et al. Appropriate use of Tocilizumab in COVID-19 Infection. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;99:338–343. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.07.03632726724
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price CC, Altice FL, Shyr Y, et al. Tocilizumab treatment for cytokine release syndrome in hospitalized COVID-19 patients: survival and clinical outcomes. Chest. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2020.06.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Firestein GS, Budd RC, Gabriel SE, et al. Firestein & Kelley’s Textbook of Rheumatology. 11th ed. Elsevier; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemostasis. 2020;18:844–847. doi:10.1111/jth.1476832073213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt FCF, Manolov V, Morgenstern J, et al. Acute fibrinolysis shutdown occurs early in septic shock and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality: results of an observational pilot study. Ann Intensive Care. 2019;9:19. doi:10.1186/s13613-019-0499-630701381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spyropoulos AC, Ageno W, Barnathan ES. Hospital-based use of thromboprophylaxis in patients with COVID-19. Lancet. 2020;395(10234):e75. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30926-032330428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vicenzi E, Canducci F, Pinna D, et al. Coronaviridae and SARS-associated coronavirus strain HSR1. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:413–418. doi:10.3201/eid1003.03068315109406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang N, Bai H, Chen X, Gong J, Li D, Sun Z. Anticoagulant treatment is associated with decreased mortality in severe coronavirus disease 2019 patients with coagulopathy. J Thromb Haemostasis. 2020;18:1094–1099. doi:10.1111/jth.1481732220112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong B. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood Rev. 1988;2:108–114. doi:10.1016/0268-960X(88)90032-X3042056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White D, MacDonald S, Bull T, et al. Heparin resistance in COVID-19 patients in the intensive care unit. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2020;1.
   Google Scholar
• Doi K, Ikeda M, Hayase N, Moriya K, Morimura N. Nafamostat mesylate treatment in combination with favipiravir for patients critically ill with Covid-19: a case series. Crit Care. 2020;24:1–4. doi:10.1186/s13054-020-03078-z31898531
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto M, Matsuyama S, Li X, et al. Identification of nafamostat as a potent inhibitor of middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus S protein-mediated membrane fusion using the split-protein-based cell-cell fusion assay. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60:6532–6539. doi:10.1128/AAC.01043-1627550352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto M, Kiso M, Sakai-Tagawa Y, et al. The anticoagulant nafamostat potently inhibits SARS-CoV-2 S protein-mediated fusion in a cell fusion assay system and viral infection in vitro in a cell-type-dependent manner. Viruses. 2020;12:629. doi:10.3390/v12060629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang S, Rhee J-Y. Three cases of treatment with Nafamostat in elderly patients with COVID-19 pneumonia who need oxygen therapy. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;96:500–502. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.05.07232470602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar