Determination of chemical components derived from 2% chlorhexidine gel degradation using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

References

• Byström A, Sundqvist G. Bacteriologic evaluation of the effects of 0.5% sodium hypochlorite in endodontic therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1981;89:321–8.
   Google Scholar
• Basrani B, Santos JM, Tjäderhane L, Grad H, Gorduysus O, Huang J, et al. Substantive antimicrobial activity in chlorhexidine-treated human root dentin. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2002;94:240–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Estrela CR, Estrela C, Reis C, Bammann LL, Pécora JD. Control of microorganisms in vitro by endodontic irrigants. Braz Dent J 2003;14:187–92.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang CS, Arnold RR, Trope M, Teixeira FB. Clinical efficiency of 2% chlorhexidine gel in reducing intracanal bacteria. J Endod 2007;33:1283–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolla G, Melsen B. On the mechanism of the plaque inhibition by chlorhexidine. J Dent Res 1975;54:57–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins S, Addy M, Wade W. The mechanism of action of chlorhexidine. J Clin Periodontol 1988;15:415–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zehnder M. Root Canal Irrigants. J Endod 2006;32:389–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kontakiotis EG, Tsatsoulis IN, Papanakou SI, Tzanetakis GN. Effect of 2% chlorhexidine gel mixed with calcium hydroxide as an intracanal medication on sealing ability of permanent root canal filling: a 6-month follow-up. J Endod 2008;34:866–70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Havlíyková L, Matysová L, Nováková L, Hájková R, Solich P. HPLC determination of chlorhexidine gluconate and p-chloroaniline in topical ointment. J Pharmaceutic Biomedic Anal 2007;43:1169–73.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Denton GW. Chlorhexidine. In Block SS, editor. Disinfection, sterilization and preservation. 4th editon. PA: Lea & Febiger; Philadelphia: 1991. p274–89.
   Google Scholar
• Zamany A, Safavi K, Spångberg LSW. The effect of chlorhexidine as an endodontic disinfectant. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2003;96:578–81.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Basrani BR, Lemonie C. Chlorhexidine gluconate. Aust Endod J 2005;31:48–52.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Index Merck. 3rd edition. Merck & Company, Inc; New York: White House Station: 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Hugo WB, Russel AD. Chemical disinfectants, antiseptics and preservatives. Pharmaceutical microbiology. In Gorman S, Scott E, editor. 5th edition. Blackwell; Oxford: 1992. p245–99.
   Google Scholar
• Jeansonne MJ, White RR. A comparison of 2% chlorhexidine gluconate and 5.25% sodium hypochlorite as antimicrobial endodontic irrigant. J Endod 1994;20:276–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buck RA, Cai J, Eleazer PD, Staat RH, Hurst HE. Detoxification of endotoxin by endodontic irrigants and calcium hydroxide. J Endod 2001;27:325–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chhabra R, Huff J, Haseman J, Elwell M, Peters A. Carcinogenicity of p-chloroaniline in rats and mice. Food Chem Toxicol 1991;29:119–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentovic MA, Ball JG, Hong SK, Rogers BA, Meadows MK, Harmon RC, et al. In vitro toxicity of 2- and 4-chloroaniline: comparisons with 4-amino-3-chlorophenol, 2-amino-5-chlorophenol and aminophenols. Toxicol In Vitro 1996;10:713–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Below H, Lehan N, Kramer A. HPLC determination of the antiseptic agent chlorhexidine and its degradation products 4-chloroaniline and 1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene in serum and urine. Microchim Acta 2004;146:129–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basrani BR, Manek S, Sodhi RNS, Fillery E, Manzur A. Interaction between sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine gluconate. J Endod 2007;33:966–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grassi TF, Camargo EA, Salvadori DMF, Marques MEA, Ribeiro DA. DNA damage in multiple organs after exposure to chlorhexidine in Wistar rats. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2007;210:163–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yeung SY, Huang CS, Chan CP, et al. Antioxidant and pro-oxidant properties of chlorhexidine and its interaction with calcium hydroxide solutions. Int Endod J 2007;40:837–44.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barbin LE, Saquy PC, Guedes DFC, Sousa-Neto MD, Estrela C, Pecora JD. Determination of para-chloroaniline and reactive oxygen species in chlorhexidine and chlorhexidine associated with calcium hydroxide. J Endod 2008;34:1508–14.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pizon AF, Schwartz AR, Shum LM, Rittenberger JC, Lower DR, Giannoutsos S, et al. Toxicology laboratory analysis and human exposure to p-chloroaniline. Clin Toxicol 2009;47:132–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basrani BR, Manek S, Mathers D, Fillery E, Sodhi RNS. Determination of 4-chloroaniline and its derivatives formed in the interaction of sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine by using gas chromatography. J Endod 2010;36:312–14.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thomas JE, Sem DS. An in vitro spectroscopic analysis to determine whether para-chloroaniline is produced from mixing sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine. J Endod 2010;36:315–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krishnamurthy S, Sudhakaran S. Evaluation and prevention of the precipitate formed on interaction between sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine. J Endod 2010;36:1154–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nowicki JB, Sem DS. An in vitro spectroscopic analysis to determine the chemical composition of the precipitate formed by mixing sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine. J Endod 2011;37:983–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jaminet TF, Delattre L, Delporte JP, Moes A. Effect of temperature of sterilization and of pH on stability of chlorhexidine in solution. Pharm Acta Helv 1970;1:60–3.
   Google Scholar
• Kohlbecker G. Toxic contaminants in chlorhexidine digluconate. Dtsch Zahnarztl Z 1989;44:273–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• World Health Organization. International Agency for Research on cancer: IARC monography on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to human. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, France: 2006. p1–25.
   Google Scholar
• Waris G, Ahsan H. Reactive oxygen species: role in the development of cancer and various chronic conditions. J Carcinogen 2006;5:14–22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ewing GW. Instrumental methods of chemical analysis. In Blücher E, editor. University of São Paulo; São Paulo: 1972;2:514
   Google Scholar
• Silverstein RM, Webster FX, Kiemle DJ. Spectrometric identification of organic compounds. 7th edition. LTC; Rio de Janeiro: 2007. p490.
   Google Scholar
• Palaretti V, Faria AL, Santos JS, Guedes DFC, Moraes LAB, Assis MD. Metalloporphyrin as catalysts in the oxidation of the chlorhexidine antimicrobial agent. XXII CICAT - Ibero-American Catalysis Congress; Viña Del Mar, Chile: 2010.
   Google Scholar