Reformulation of current recommendations for target serum lithium concentration according to clinical indication, age and physical comorbidity

References

• Cade J. Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. Med J Aust 1949; 2:349–352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer M, Mitchner L. What is a ‘mood stabilizer’? An evidence-based response. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161:3–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price L, Carpenter L, Tyrka A. Lithium augmentation for refractory depression: a critical reappraisal. Primary Psychiatry 2008; 15:35–42.
   Google Scholar
• Cipriani A, Pretty H, Hawton K, Geddes J. Lithium in the prevention of suicidal behaviour and all-cause mortality in patients with mood disorders: a systematic review of randomized trials. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162:1805–1819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malhi G, Adams D, Berk M. Is lithium in a class of its own? A brief profile of its clinical use. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2009; 43:1096–1104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tohen M, Chengappa K, Suppes T . Efficacy of olanzapine in combination with valproate or lithium in the treatment of mania in patients partially nonresponsive to valproate or lithium monotherapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002; 59:62–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shulman K, Rochon P, Sykora K . Changing prescription patterns for lithium and valproic acid in old age: shifting practice without evidence. BMJ 2003; 326:960–961.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell P. Therapeutic drug monitoring of psychotropic medications. Br J Clin Pharm 2001; 52:S45–S54.
   Google Scholar
• Adityanjee, Munshi K, Thampy A. The syndrome of irreversible lithium-effectuated neurotoxicity. Clin Neuropharm 2005; 28:38–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindeman R, Tobin J, Shock N. Longitudinal studies on the rate of decline in renal function with age. J Am Ger Soc 1985; 33:278–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L, Pym H. Rapid onset of neurological symptoms and lithium toxicity on starting meloxicam. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2010; 44: 95–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sachs G, Gardner-Schuster E. Adjunctive treatment of acute mania: a clinical overview. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2007; 116:27–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amdisen A. Serum level monitoring and clinical pharmacokinetics of lithium. Clin Pharmacokinetics 1977; 2:73–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malhi GS, Tanious M. Optimal frequency of lithium administration in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Clinical and dosing considerations. CNS Drugs 2011; 25:289–298.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schou M. Lithium in psychiatric therapy. Stock-taking after ten years. Psychopharmacologia 1959; 1:65–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schou M. Foreword. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1999; 33:S1–S3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birch N, Grof P, Hullin R, Kehoe R, Schou M, Srinivasan D. Lithium prophylaxis: proposed guidelines for good clinical practice. Lithium 1993; 4:225–230.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Treatment of patients with bipolar disorder, second edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• NICE. Bipolar disorder: the management of bipolar disorder in adults, children and adolescents, in primary and secondary care. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists Clinical Practice Guidelines Team for Bipolar Disorder. Australian and New Zealand clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of bipolar disorder. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2004; 38:280–305.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yatham L, Kennedy S, Schaffer A . Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) and International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) collaborative update of CANMAT guidelines for the management of patients with bipolar disorder: update 2009. Bipolar Dis 2009; 11:225–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ng F, Mammen O, Wilting I . The International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) consensus guidelines for the safety monitoring of bipolar disorder treatments. Bipolar Dis 2009; 11:559–595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden C, Brugger A, Swann A . Efficacy of divalproex versus lithium and placebo in the treatment of mania. JAMA 1994; 271:918–924.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden C, Grunze H, Mullen J . A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled efficacy and safety study of quetiapine or lithium as monotherapy for mania in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66:111–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ketter T, Wang P, Nowakowska C, Marsh W, Bonner J. Treatment of acute mania in bipolar disorder. In: Ketter T, ed. Advances in Treatment of Bipolar Disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Sachs G, Grossman F, Ghaemi S, Okamoto A, Bowden C. Combination of a mood stabilizer with risperidone or haloperidol for treatment of acute mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of efficacy and safety. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 1146–1154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yatham L, Grossman F, Augustyns I, Vieta E, Ravindran A. Mood stabilisers plus risperidone or placebo in the treatment of acute mania. Br J Psychiatry 2003; 182:141–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sachs G, Chengappa K, Suppes T . Quetiapine with lithium or divalproex for the treatment of bipolar mania: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Bipolar Dis 2004; 6:213–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yatham L, Paulsson B, Mullen J, Vagero M. Quetiapine versus placebo in combination with lithium or divalproex for the treatment of bipolar mania. J Clin Psychopharm 2004; 24:599–606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieta E, T'joen C, McQuade R . Efficacy of adjunctive aripiprazole to either valproate or lithium in bipolar mania patients partially nonresponsive to valproate/lithium monotherapy: a placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165:1316–1325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Severus W, Kleindeinst N, Seemuller F, Frangou S, Moller H, Greil W. What is the optimal serum lithium level in the long-term treatment of bipolar disorder – A review? Bipolar Dis 2008; 10:231–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geddes J, Goodwin G, Rendell J . Lithium plus valproate combination therapy versus monotherapy for relapse prevention in bipolar I disorder (BALANCE): a randomised open-label trial. Lancet 2010; 375:385–395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nierenberg A, Sylvia L, Leon A . Lithium treatment – moderate dose use study (LiTMUS) for bipolar disorder: rationale and design. Clinical Trials 2009; 6:637–648.
   Google Scholar
• Gelenberg A, Kane J, Keller M . Comparison of standard and low serum levels of lithium for maintenance treatment of bipolar depression. New Engl J Med 1989; 321:1489–1493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perlis R, Sachs G, Lafer B . Effect of abrupt change from standard to low serum levels of lithium: a reanalysis of double-blind lithium maintenance data. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159:1155–1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters B, Lapierre Y, Gagnon A . Determination of the optimal concentration of lithium for the prophylaxis of manic-depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1982; 17:1323–1329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coppen A, Abou-Saleh M, Milln P, Bailey J, Wood K. Decreasing lithium dosage reduces morbidity and side-effects during prophylaxis. J Affec Dis 1983; 5:353–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleindeinst N, Severus W, Greil W. Are serum lithium levels related to the polarity of recurrence in bipolar disorders? Evidence from a multicenter trial. Int Clin Psychopharm 2007; 22:125–131.
   Google Scholar
• Maj M, Starace F, Nolfe G, Kemali D. Minimum plasma lithium levels required for effective prophylaxis in DSM-III bipolar disorder: a prospective study. Pharmacopsychiatry 1986; 19: 420–423.
   Google Scholar
• Stein G, Bernadt M. Lithium augmentation therapy in tricyclic-resistant depression. A controlled trial using lithium in low and normal doses. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162:634–640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nierenberg A, Fava M, Trivedi M . A comparison of lithium and T3 augmentation following two failed medication treatments for depression: a STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163:1519–1530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satlin A, Liptzin B, Young R. Diagnosis and treatment of late-life bipolar disorder. In: Salzman C, . Clinical geriatric psychopharmacology. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Juurlink D, Mamdani M, Kopp A, Rochon P, Shulman K, Redelmeier D. Drug-induced lithium toxicity in the elderly: a population-based study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004; 52:794–798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoudemire A, Hill C, Lewison B, Marquardt M, Dalton S. Lithium intolerance in a medical-psychiatric population. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1998; 20:85–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oakley P, Whyte I, Carter G. Lithium toxicity: an iatrogenic problem in susceptible individuals. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2001; 35: 833–840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia. RCPA Manual. Sydney: Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Roshanaei-Moghaddam B, Katon W. Premature mortality from general medical illnesses among persons with bipolar disorder: a review. Psychiatr Serv 2009; 60:147–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phelan M, Stradins L, Morrison S. Physical health of people with severe mental illness can be improved if primary care and mental health professionals pay attention to it. BMJ 2001; 322:443–444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar